Latin-American Studies

Q 1 The media industry plays a significant role in the shaping and popularizing of ideology. It influences peoples perceptions about social trends and culture. The film industry, particularly, presents models who inspire and promote new ways of thinking. In the case of Carmen Miranda, her success in Hollywood placed her on a global pedestal to illuminate the Latin American image. Her role as an actress and samba singer promoted the Brazilian cultural aspects to the white American audience both on screen and TV. She became an admired celebrity, whose bared midriff and gyrating hips would provide Americans with frivolous, samba-dancing images of an undifferentiated landmass somewhere South of the border (Ulloa 2006). Through the eyes of the media, national identity is intimately associated with the collective fantasies of star bodies. As a celebrated Brazilian artist, Miranda contributed in the whitening of the samba culture by singing it and acting it to the American audiences.  The girl in the tuttu frutti hat was a cultural package from the South to the North. In endearing herself to the American public, she played her role of a diplomat throughout her lifelong career in Hollywood.

Q 2 Literatura de cordel which basically means literature on a string, has become increasingly trendy and of interest not only to the Brazilian scholars but to the general public. Cordel literature includes an inexpensively accepted printed booklet that contains poems, novels, folks and songs. Small folios containing prosaic anecdotes were published by artisans in the North Eastern Brazil and displayed in the market in a cloth line. Ancient folkloric parables, local events and stories including loves and lives that have won hearts of many, were conveyed in the small folios. The poetry can be either sung or read aloud. Competitions were usually held for the unsurpassed story.

Literatura de cordel can be compared to todays television. People went to the market place to perform on what was exactly happening at that particular day. They they sold the contemptible street market poetry which was suspended by strings. Poets would dangle their verses among strings and then chant aloud to attract attention to the audience and potential consumers who would eventually take their purchases to their groups and friends and read aloud for them. It socially brought people together and created awareness on a certain aspect of life.

Comics would come to entertain the public through confined songs for money, thus we can depict that the literature helped improve the living standards of people. Through this, many authors emerged and the first author who wrote on comics was Fernandez .He asserted that comics and literature in general helped in formation of a fresh sagacity of nationhood in Latin America and the augment of communal Latino Identity in USA.

Q 3 Historietas are graphical comics aimed to entertain, but at the same time convey messages about social issues to the audience. In the Mexican context, historietas were designed and styled to capture and address the various aspects of society such as crime, romance and war. They were a veiled way of promoting moral order in a humorous way. To capture the attention of the audience, historietas artists employed techniques that appealed to the human fancies and passion. Accordingly, they featured sexist images, heroic and daring plots, critical comments and sarcastic humor. By addressing a wide range of issues, they provided a forum of contest and dialogue, where social issues were debated and ideas exchanged. Similarly, they adapted their themes and characters to the local context to appeal to more people by creating relevance and connection of experience. Some of the series included El Santo el enmascarado de plata and Kalimn-el (Ulloa, 2006).

Q 4 We can not fail to incorporate historietas who entertain and convey important messages like Kaliman when discussing literature on the grounds of adventure and the worlds greatest comics. He portrays logic in his plots of adventure and solves his own tribulations in his brawl against iniquity. He retains knowledge in different spheres of life be it arts, sports, politics or sciences. Logically, without literature and people who are out there not to only entertain but to bring the authentic depiction of the phenomenon of the world, it is patent that life can be a bore.

Dream
People walking around towards places they go
Like ants in suits of gray, black and color
Some briskly in a rush some pace real slow
From this face to that ground, nobody is taller
These feet over the edge of a narrow plank of wood
Either a slight step back or further on wont do
A safe stride gradually to the left neither could
To face the right angle render this one view to two
Really quick breaths drying these words
A dawdling murder of a young childlike mind
Relief is at hand soaring with the birds
Brightness through clouds renders eyes blind
Awakened, enlightened from a world unshaken
Now risen from comfort with arms wide open

This poem explains the extraordinary experience of Antonio. As a child, he acted differently from other children. His distance from that of the normal way children of his age would act and his tiresome pursuit for answers towards his confusion over his beliefs was reconciled when he was introduced by Ultima to a different manner of viewing things. He was Awakened, enlightened from a world unshaken now risen from comfort with arms wide open.

Grateful Praise
You are the water
Quenching my thirst
Keeping me afloat
Cleansing my being
You are the water
That bathes me from sin

Yours is the touch
Calming my fear
Soothing me from ache
Healing my pain
Yours is the touch
Shaking my uncertainties

You free me
From bondage
From folly
From hardship
You free me
You free me
Mother, you free me

This work, Grateful Praise, highlights the symbol of Marias statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe. It is the emblem of patience, repentance and perpetual help. Apart from Ultima, Antonio turns to the Virgin Mother whenever he seeks guidance. The statue also symbolizes the settlement of the Catholic Church with the native practices.

Movement of Faith
I look over my right shoulder and see the western river and the glory of a stone mountain
With colorfully stained windows and sculptures of men and women in robes adorned
The light of the sun that blinds most men shines upon the big gray rock
Hands moving from foreheads down to chests then to both sides of shoulders
Tongues chanting then sinning then repenting then sinning then chanting
A long line for a piece of bread that supposedly brings life to a souls death
Amidst mouths gracefully calling me to look over my left shoulder and see beyond the trees
Where tree barks refresh, an old owl guides, and magic exists and a carp guards the world
But in front of me
I choose what life is

This poem pictures out both Catholic and indigenous beliefs and how Antonio is situated amongst all available options. In the end, he realizes that in front of him, Ultima guides him towards moral independence.

The Chalice
A door from afar shut closed and so tight
Clearly almost out of this clouded sight
This stupor perhaps clouds bounds
After the thousands of rounds
Taken to reduce the regret
I would never have let
My own he must see
That he can be
Whoever he wishes
Whatever he wishes
The door is still shut
It is and will be but
This place, here
Will do, I fear
Its rather fine
To leave all behind
Sundays, will be for Him
For Him, for them, not whim

This poem symbolizes the experience of Gabriel as he encounters a moment of regret when they left the llano for town. He drank occasionally and bickers with his wife yet eventually accepts the situation showing maturity and growth. He also advices his son that he could become a vaquero just if he wants to.

Ultima
She is the dream that awakened
The dream that buried a future
Resolved conflict none could amend
Directed a soul to nurture
The light that gave a map to lead
A good life of independence
From beliefs requiring great need
For sacrifice and obedience
But obedience not towards ones good
But towards a life others would deem
A life one definitely could
Have, but not what would always seem
Her death will always be a start
Of another life, a promise
That choice does come from ones kind heart
And not from books nor a bread and a chalice

This work explains the influence of Ultima towards the life of Antonio. Her mysticism and indigenous practice paved the way for Antonios inquisition about moral choices. Although she died at the end of the novel, it would never mean the end of Antonios maturity but rather the start of Antonios full moral independence.

All Is The Same
Floating on water
Calm with the sun shining bright
Furious with dark gray clouds and a thunders roaring might
For thirty one years, fingers, arms, toes
Badly wrinkled
How the deep blue embraces a body and turns it into a prune
Swimming in the water
Calm with the sun shining bright
Furious with dark gray clouds and a thunders roaring might
For thirty one years, fingers, arms, toes
Badly wrinkled
How the deep blue embraces a body and turns it into a prune
Playing in the water
Calm with the sun shining bright
Furious with dark gray clouds and a thunders roaring might
For thirty one years, fingers, arms, toes
Badly wrinkled
How the deep blue embraces a body and turns it into a prune
Floating on water
Swimming in the water
Playing in the water
All is the same

This poem clearly pictures out how cultural influence makes a person identity. Antonios culture has made up his identity. Just like water, whatever one does on it, when one is immersed in it, it wrinkles the skin. As long as one is within it, whatever one does, the effect of culture will always be apparent.

The Rage of a Father
Hurt is for hurt
Pain is for pain
The knife that sliced her life away
The breath that faded into silence
Is you
A life for a life
And yours is at stake
Theres no more left in mine
Its source you have put outShes gone.
And sheStanding in line
Yours is not yours to keep.
Now revenge is mine

This poem explains the anger of Tenorio towards the ill fate of his daughters. He placed the blame over innocent people with no consideration for the consequences of his actions. In pursuit of revenge, he murders two people yet not bringing back the life of her daughter.

Hubert Nathaniel Critchlow.
In my quest to find a Guyanese who has contributed to the great land of Guyana, I chose Hubert Nathaniel Critchlow.  Critchlow founded the first labor union of the Caribbean called British Guiana Labour Union (BGLU) at the early age of 20.  May 1st, Labour Day or May Day is a holiday that celebrates Critchlows contribution and accomplishments in improving the working conditions of so many laborers. Critchlow stands tall as an important figure in the origin and development of the labor movement in British Guiana. I do not recall learning about Critchlow growing up in Guyana however I cannot wait to conduct a more in-depth research on his life.

He was born in Georgetown on December 1884. He attended Bedford Wesleyan primary school. At the age of thirteen, he left school after his father died and had to find a job for his upkeep at home. Critchlow was good at sports, continued to do it and soon became a sports figure in 1905-1914. He was the countrys middle-distance champion, a good footballer and cricketer. After Critchlow left school, he worked as an apprentice at the Demerara Foundry. At the turn of the century, he obtained employment as a dock labourer on the waterfront. His active representation of fellow workers during the strike in 1905 made him popular. He then continued to support workers rights and was always called upon to represent workers cases to their employers in the following years (Chase, 1966).

Infill (2001) goes further to explain that in the early 1900, the working and living conditions for almost all workers were dreadful. The workers were considered lucky to be able to secure employment due to the high unemployment, making the employed have long working days for a low and fixed pay in the face of the rising cost of living. With no organization to represent the plight of the workers to their employers, the workers had to struggle to secure a humane wage and improve working condition. The government supported the employers to the disadvantage of the workers by failing to establish laws to regulate income and hours of labor as well as grant legal status to trade unions. The state also defended the business community in their exploitation of workers and even deployed military power to suppress workers demonstrations.

It was during the strikes in 1917 that Critchlow became popular as he represented the interests of waterfront workers in collective bargaining and was then regarded as the leader of all waterfront workers, helping those secure increased wages. During the period, he led a petition for an eight hours working day.  The chamber of commerce was pressuring him to withdraw his name from the petition, as they had done to other petitioners, but Critchlow adamantly refused, leading him to being fired from his job and blacklisted form obtaining a job. He had to depend on close friends for assistance (Harry, 2007)

Being jobless, Critchlow continued to petition for the eight hour working day and in December 1918, he led a small delegation of workers to meet with the governor, Sir Wilfred Colet. In her book, Woolford (1992) says that Critchlow developed an idea of forming a trade union after that meeting. He started to make arrangement for its formation straight away. The British Labour Union (BGLU) was ultimately established on January 11th 1919. There were several problems that were experienced in the establishment of this union.
Employers saw it as a force aimed at causing industrial unrest, therefore issuing threats to workers who were union members. The membership grew despite these threats and at the end of the first year, more than seven thousand financial members had joined the union. Critchlow was then employed on a full time basis by the union. He never stopped being a spokesperson for the workers, publicized their grievances and demanded better working conditions and better wages for the workers. He was however challenged by the more educated members of the union who felt that because of his limited education, he should not be allowed to have such high responsibilities. These members, who were the minority in the union, wanted a doctor or a lawyer to lead the union. At a meeting of the union in 1920, a motion was introduced requesting Critchlow to hand over all the unions fund to Dr. T. T. Nichols and two other lawyers, but it was shot down by a huge majority. A vote of confidence in Critchlow was passed (Chase, 1966).

In the early 1920s, after the end of the World War, there was a serious unemployment crisis that developed. There were strikes and riots in Georgetown in 1924. Workers were demanding a shorter working day and higher wage to combat the rising cost of living. When the employers refused to meet these demands, riots broke out in various parts of Georgetown, despite t appeals from Critchlow for the workers to avoid violence. Critchlow advised the workers to end the strikes after numerous arrests were made and both men and women were charged with inciting and causing violence. This was met with opposition, but Critchlows decision was needed after he acknowledged that the Governor would have to intercede in the matter of wages. Critchlow asked the Governor to set up an Arbitration board to exam the wage issue and to force both the employers and workers to accept it. The Governor included Critchlow as one of the two workers representatives since there was no legislation allowing the establishment of such a board. The board though, did little to improve the situation. BGLU expanded its international links during this period and Critchlow represent the union at the British Commonwealth labor conference. In 1941, in order to represent workers in various areas, the British Guiana trades council (TUC) was established and Critchlow was appointed at its first Secretary General (Daly, 1974).

Due to his experience in workers struggles, Critchlow recognized that the capitalist system was not bringing benefits to the working class. In December 1930, he addressed union members and asked workers to fight against capitalism and struggle for establishment of socialism. Critchlow also fought for voting rights for all the workers to enable them to participate in the national elections. Leaders of other unions that had been formed at this time also agitated this cause. The Governor nominated him and Ayube Edun, of the Man Power citizens Association to represent workers in the legislative council. Critchlow was later appointed to the executive council where he served until 1947. Critchlow also served as the Governments nominee on the Georgetown city council from 1945 to December 1950 (Harry, 2007).

In 1947 elections, Critchlow contested and won the south Georgetown constituency only for his election to be declared null and void as a result of an election petition. He was then barred from contesting for a legislative council seat for five years. Critchlow however never stopped representing workers in the various parts of the country (Infill, 2002).

Critchlow was awarded the medal of officer of the British Empire (OBE) by King George VI in 1951 for his outstanding public service. He resigned as a General Secretary of both BGLU and TUC, but continued to serve on the Arbitration panel examining wage dispute for waterfront workers in Grenada. This outstanding working class leader died on 10th May 1958 at the age of seventy four years.  A famous Guyanese artist E.R. Burrows sculpted a statue of Critchlow at the request of Dr. Jagan. The statue was later placed on the grounds of the Parliament building (Daly, 1974).

In conclusion, I would say that it is a testimony that Critchlow is considered as the father of the trade union movement in Guyana. This is bearing in mind that at the age of twenty one years old, as a dock worker, he founded the British Guiana Labour union, which fought with success for the rights of the dock workers in Georgetown.

The Hispanic American population is made up of many ethnic communities. They share a number of similarities. Such include the use of Spanish as their primary language of communication and the fact that they are predominantly Roman Catholic believers. However, the various Hispanic American communities have differences in their levels of assimilation into the main stream culture as well as their reasons behind coming into the American nation. This paper gives a discussion on the linguistics, politics, social-economics, religion, and family aspects of four Hispanic American communities namely the Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and the Central Americans. A summary of the similarities and difference among these communities is also given.

The Puerto Rican Americans 
The Puerto Rican ethnic community hails from Puerto Rico, a common wealth of the US nation thus making them to be legally recognized as citizens of America (Nostrand, 2005). This fact is also crucial in explaining why many Puerto Rican Americans are fluent in speaking English. English is also a basic lesson in elementary classes thus making most of the second and higher generations quite fluent in speaking it. However, it is to be noted that the group mainly use Spanish as their primary language of communication (Schaefer, 2006).
The members of this community are predominantly Roman Catholics though there are some protestant believers particularly of the Methodist and Baptist churches (Tate, 2008). There still exist Muslim believers as well as other religions. Due to their automatic citizenship on arrival to American, the Puerto Ricans are legally allowed to actively participate in all political involvements of the American nation except to participate in the election of the American president.

This group has a strong family bond as can be seen in their treasure for extended families. They also have low divorces rates and high levels of friendless, an element which could be attributed to their strong religious background and value for family (Nostrand, 2005). On the economic front, the Puerto Ricans are exempted of federal tax payments. They are also granted freedom of migration in and out of America. This gives them a competitive advantage over other groups both in the job market and business establishment.

The Mexican Americans 
The Mexican American are the most dominant Hispanic American community in America with an estimated over 8.9 percent of the total American population (Ramirez, 2004). Their primary language of communication is English. However, following the recent introduction of bilingual education, most of the second and further generations are quite fluent is speaking English. The group is a major determinant in the American politics by influence of their large numbers (Schaefer, 2006).

The community is well established economically. This is particularly due to the fact that its large population is marked with almost all sorts of academic and skilled professionals, a factor which gives them a competitive in all sectors of the job market economy including holding public office jobs (Tate, 2008). Nevertheless, the group is marked with less entrepreneurship involvements. Most of the Mexican Americans are Roman Catholics with a small population practicing protestant faith.

Mexican Americans treasure their family bond as their core social structure. This has been evidently demonstrated in their communal way of living (Nostrand, 2005). They do appreciate their extended families just like their nuclear family units. Another family aspect with this community is that traditionally men served both as the bread winners and the final decision makers in the family (Nostrand, 2005). It is nevertheless to be stated that due to the global economic hardships and the factors of civilization, women are nowadays actively involved in providing for their families.

El Salvadorians
This group of Hispanic Americans is mainly composed of illegal immigrants (Tate, 2008). Their main communication language is Spanish. However, due to the need to realize their dreams, most El Salvadorians have struggled hard to learn how to speak English (Tate, 2008). This Hispanic American community does not dominantly participate in American elections. This can be first attributed to the fact that most of them are illegal immigrants. The constitution also does not give them any political rights.

The El Salvadorians have been cited to live in poor economic conditions (Ramirez, 2004). They do not engage in entrepreneurship activities. This can be associated to the fact that most of them tend to invest in their motherland. It is due to this reason that this group is a major concern for aid giving organizations. Still to be established here is the fact that due to the illegal status, lack of political influence and high resistance of assimilating to the mainstream culture, most find it hard to get a well paying job as well as fight for their labor rights (Schaefer, 2006).

Religiously, the El Salvadorians community is roman Catholics a mixture of some protestant believers (Nostrand, 2005). This community believes in strong family ties. Still, they are marked with large families. It is however to be noted that the big family trend is slowly changing mainly due to the hard economic conditions that have befallen this community. Increasing levels of civilization could also be attributed to the change towards having smaller families.

The Cuban Americans
This group has been identified as having been more assimilated into the main stream culture than any other Hispanic American community (Nostrand, 2005). This has been closely attributed to their desire to gain a competitive advantage in the job and business sectors of America. However, they still use Spanish as the primary language of communication. Bilingual education has made higher generations of the Cuban American community quite fluent in speaking English (Nostrand, 2005).

The Cuban American community is allowed by the constitution of America to participate in American politics. They are even allowed to nominate and vote for their own political leaders (Pew Hispanics Center, 2006). Just to be noted here is the fact that this group predominantly supports conservative politics. In regions and matters of faith, the group is marked with a mixture of religions with other being non-believers. However, the most common religion is the Roman Catholic faith.

Cuban Americans are quite involved in business entrepreneurship activities (Pew Hispanics Center, 2006). This can be proved by witnessing how they have managed to change Miami city into a modern one, action which has been realized through the establishment of businesses. Despite it high rates of assimilation into the main stream culture, the Cuban Americans are still holding on to their strong family bond culture (Pew Hispanics Center, 2006). They treasure their Hispanic culture as it can be witnessed from the way they have made Miami a city of Hispanic favorites.

The four Hispanic American groups have major similarities in their social, language and religious lives. They all use Spanish as their primary communication language. The groups both have a strong family bond and their major religion is Roman Catholic. They all came to search for the American dream.

However, the groups are different in the levels of assimilation into the mainstream culture. The Cuban Americans have high levels of assimilation compared to the El Salvadorians. Another difference is on investment involvements. Unlike all other communities, the El Salvadorians has the least levels of entrepreneurship. The groups recognition by the constitution is also a crucial difference to note. The Cuban Americans are legal allowed to actively participate in American politics as opposed to the El Salvadorians who have no right to vote in America.

History of Borderlands can do much to illuminate existing political influences about immigration to the United States. Most Americans, perhaps with the exclusion of those in the Southwest, visualize United States as absolutely distinct from Mexico. Borderlands histories and researches illuminate the convoluted integration of the people. Also evident from literature are the territories of the United States and Mexico developed through time. Mexicans have much deeper information of this long-term integration and extend to outlook the Southwest.  They are often seen as other components of the United States, partially as a part of larger Mexico. Figuratively more than 20.5 million people of Mexican source who reside in the United States have long-term proficiency in dwelling the integration of the United States and Mexico. They are also concerned with removing the obstacles to this integration. The long-view local annals supplied by Acua endow us to realize how, legal, private, cultural, racial, and political boundaries were conceived in the late nineteenth and twentieth century.  All this occurred as United States usurped and evolved more than 40 of unaligned Mexicos territory. The aligned, incorporated development of the U.S. and Mexican excavation and ranching commerce in this district has along with transport corridors founded on train lines (Acua).

Furthermore this assisted as a corridor for political, heritage, financial, and family trans-border connections that are tolerated to this day. Putting the borderlands at the center presents us a vital optic for comprehending the long-term integration and transnational annals of the countries. These countries are now called Mexico and the United States. Acuas methodical and comprehensive rendering of these local annals serves as an interpretation of the numerous events. These events are San Joaquin Valley cotton fabric hit of 1933, the killing of Pedro Subia in Arvin, California, and the chronicled connections that cotton fabric employees had with work activism. All these interpretations present a case study in the deep combination of the United States and Mexico. Acua very carefully represents the copper borderlands as an uneven mosaic of human spaces. Some interwoven, other ones less so some international, other ones nationwide, some, colonial, and other ones modern. This representation allows the book reader to take a glance at commonplace persons and their connections, and how these coexisted with state and business command to reshape the borderlands on their own terms.  Acua focuses on the transnational development of the copper borderlands in the states of Chihuahua, Sonora, Arizona, and New Mexico in the nineteenth and early twentieth century.  This case study of the connections between U.S. entrepreneurial capital, engineers, the U.S. and Mexican authorities, localized political agents on both edges of the boundary, replaced native peoples. For example the Apache and Mexican-origin laborers who worked the copper mines present a chart for future tendencies of capital buying (Acua).

Thus transforming it into, unofficial boundary command that has functioned out-of-doors of authorized policing, intensified nationalism, and arguments on the meanings of citizenship. In possibly the most intriguing part of his study of the identical district Acua proposes how opponents government worked on peak of this domain construction financial integration. He mentions in large context how starting with beneficence or mutuality, associations for miners supplying death protection. And then through work coordination in Tombstone, Clifton, Morenci, and Metcalf, Arizonathe United States and then the Mexican edges of the copper borderlands became hubs of work militancy.  He talks about how the 1903 Clifton-Morenci miners hit was Mexican made and not as described in numerous annals bookssupported by the Western Federation of Miners (112).  Acua mentions how work militancy and then revolutionary Mexican government were intertwined simultaneously by the financial and transport schemes of the copper borderlands region. This was apparent by displaying the connections between administrators of the Clifton-Morenci hit, sympathizers of the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM, founded by Ricardo Flores Magn) in Arizona and El Paso, Texas, and the mine at Cananea. Acua furthermore presents a chronicled and conceptual cornerstone for comprehending how pharmaceutical cartels put their enterprises simultaneously in the identical district.

However Acua does this with amplified procedures all through Mexico and the United States.  Currently, more than 2,000 immigrants of various nationalities cross the U.S.-Mexico border as undocumented immigrants every year. In an attempt to keep them from entering the country, the U.S. government has been involved in the construction of a fence along the border (Acua).

Since the beginning of the 20th century, immigration policies have continued to shift over the years along the U.S.-Mexico border. Fluctuating U.S. immigration policies adopted a revolving door approach after the economic recession in 1920-1922, and this strategy would reverberate through immigration policy for many years to come. The revolving door allowed immigrants to enter the country to increase the labor force during certain time periods when they were most needed, followed by a period of deportation once the labor force was no longer required. During the same time period, the U.S. Border Patrol was formed to enforce these policies.  Acuas overarching goal is to document and analyze the impacts of the Mexico borderland fence. At the same time he also views the perceptions of local residents, ethnic landscapes, crime rates, and human rights. We begin with a historical overview of the fluctuating and increasingly rigid policies related to the migration and settlement of Latino immigrants in the United States. The introductory section is followed by a description of the community, the primary site of our research. Findings from this book can used to help unravel both inside and outside discourses. This would include both community and the border and provides a local context for understanding the larger-scale political, cultural, and socioeconomic impacts of the fence on both sides of the border. Acua then turns our attention to a discussion of some of the misperceptions about the fence in terms of its affect (or not) on crime rates, the flow of undocumented immigrants, and human rights (Acua).

Collectively, this publication presents a chronicled, political, financial, gendered, and heritage chart for utilizing the borderlands. This helps us in understanding this as a notion to realize the convoluted integration of the United States and Mexico. From distinct twists, it presents the reader data and concepts. These concepts can move the United States ahead in revamping prescribed immigration principle to agree the truth of U.S.-Mexican life. We need a very shrewd and comprehensive approach. This should at a smallest encompass a route to acquired citizenship family unification a protected, lawful, and orderly avenue for migrant employees to go in and depart the United States. Also provide work protections for all workers and border-enforcement principles. This would not only defend the territory from those who really threaten it but also defend the human privileges of all. Such a principle would propose that we can move after this boundary. This is an ideological tool for fighting in an effort to rally boundary citizens behind business and state visions of power and command. This would be possible by anchoring the policing of space to a timeless, naturalized protecting against of civilization. Instead, we can adopt the truth of expanded borderlands and double-check that all the persons inside them are highly regarded and included.

Positive aspects  of Ordinary tourism include getting acquainted with different places
learning about different cultures and wide variety of chances of broadening our
understanding  from the world perspective. The disadvantages  associated with it are
cultural distortions where people coming from different parts of the world may leave
varied impressions on the people living in the tourist places and their impact may
dominate all the more if the tourist influx is high to a tourist spot. The entire tourist
spot no longer remains  a tourist location but turns out into a business center due to
rapid growth of small time businesses around that place.

Ecotourism means a type of tourism where the environment and the tourist benefit.
An eco tourist travels under the guidance of a naturalist to ecological places.
It is a pleasure to be a part of ecotourism because that educates a tourist  on
environment and helps in understanding the importance of protecting the
environment. And having access to environmentally protected areas is really  a
thrilling experience.

Let me share my views with you as a friend on Costa Rica as an ideal place for
ecotourism. Why Costa Rica has become an ideal example for this eco tourism is its
National Park System.. These park systems come under protected areas. Bird
watching ,Butterfly farms , hiking the eco lodges , all come under the purview of eco
tourism. It cannot be taken simply as a mere green-washing. It is genuine to its core.
The tourists get educated rightly in the ways of developing more eco friendly
attitudes, caring for their own environment when back home and more than these,
learn to respect nature. Coming to how it helps it enhances the flora and fauna and it
is a fact that scientists and conservationists from across the world are attracted to it.
Enhanced research activities help take research in biological fields to new heights.
Tourism has grown there as an industry ,boosting its economy in every sector. It has
turned tourists into environmentalists by way of educating them about environmental
protection.

It does educate the community members also in a way that helps them
become more eco conscious and the take pride in their natural wealth and effortlessly
take to ways of preserving and developing their environment , thus contributing in
their own way. I have seen the darker side of these also  that gave rise to several
social ills like gambling, black marketeering and the like. Not all people  of the
community agree to large areas of land being cordoned off in the name of protecting
natural parks. They stressed the need for harmony between natural parks, wild life and
the people who live there. In spite of the negative aspects or obstacles, which are
common in any country and need to be  removed through right political decisions, eco
tourism leads to sustainable growth of the community and the nation. The impact on
community is visible by the growth of the eco-friendly industries that cropped up. The
economy received a boost due to its people taking to more eco friendly businesses like
building butterfly farms, running horse riding agencies and other careers that are
associated with eco tourism. The high standard of living of Costa Ricas middle class,
their best health care services and public education systems are an illustration of the
impact of their attitude towards eco tourism. Its my opinion that it does not  give rise
to stereo types because of the existence of varied geographical conditions,  national
parks, bio diversity and natural wealth.. Eco-tourism to Costa Rica is marked by
creativity and panorama. International awareness to eco friendly projects has seen a
growth. Remember, it is Costa Ricas  extraordinary biodiversity and geographical
size give no way to stereo types in the long run.

Dear name of friend,
I am very excited to hear that you are planning your trip to Ecuador It is a very nice place and I would like to make a visit to the place soon. I heard a lot of positive comments about the place, especially with regard to its ecotourism industry. I checked out the website you gave me and there are some thoughts I would like to share with the activities enclosed in the Piedra Blancas ecotourism project.

As an ecotourist, there are a few things that should be noted of Piedra Blanca. First, it can be noticed that the website claims that it is virtually untouched by tourism but it is shown that it is rapidly becoming commercialized. There should be sustainable development within the community, which means that the level of tourism that is brought to Piedra Blanca should have the least impact as possible to the environment and to the families living within it. There is a cultural aspect involved in this part of Ecuador and the degree of change in the lives of the people living in it should be at the lowest level possible. The change should be small such that the people can still live their normal lives and live on to their culture.

Second, the project lives to the standards of ecotourism when it comes to the goal of educating the people about the environment and the community. The activities enclosed in the project involved interaction with the environment where the tourists are allowed to participate in some activities of the community. The use of interaction is a good way for the tourists, like you, to experience the community apart from being a mere observant.

Now, I hope that you have seen a larger picture of Piedra Blanca for you to make the most out of your ecotourism experience. Send me back some photos as soon as you can, alright Take care
Waiting,
your name here
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Measures are used to monitor the millennium development goals progress of countries, especially with five years before the targeted completion (UN 2010). The discussion compares measures for three Latin American countries, Brazil, Bolivia and Peru.

The percentage of population living with less than a dollar per day is a measure of poverty level. In 1990, Peru had extremely low poverty levels relative to Brazil and Bolivia. In the latest data, Perus poverty levels almost quadrupled, Brazil significantly lowered poverty levels by more than half, and Bolivias poverty levels remained high but unchanging. Brazil appears to have best addressed the problem of poverty, by reducing the number of people living daily with less than a dollar by around two-thirds, despite having the largest population (CIA 2010a).

The percentage of net primary enrolment reflects access to basic education. In 1990, Peru had the highest percentage with almost all the school age population enrolled under primary education, Bolivia had high percentage, and Brazil had the lowest percentage albeit still at the 80 mark. In the latest data, Peru and Bolivia slightly experienced a decrease by less than 1 percentage point and Brazil was able to increase net primary enrolment by 8 percentage points. Access to primary education is high for all three Latin American countries, especially for Peru (CIA 2010b US Library of Congress 2010). The target of universal primary education remains.

The share of women in non-agricultural employment describes gender equality. In 1990, Peru had the lowest percentage relative to Brazil and Bolivia. In the latest year, all three countries increased percentages but Peru still had the lowest rate. Nevertheless, the three countries were able to increase women employment outside of agriculture.

Mortality in children under 5 per 1000 individuals reflects the state of child health. In 1990, Peru had a value in between Brazil as the lowest and Bolivia as the highest. In the latest data, all the countries were able to cut mortality rates by more than half with Peru attaining the lowest value closely followed by Brazil. The decrease in child mortality for Peru and Brazil has also exceeded the target of two thirds. The value for Bolivia remain relatively high (CIA 2010c) and it was not able to achieve the targeted two-thirds decrease.

The percentage of population with improved sanitation directly reflects health condition and indirectly relates to poverty and employment. In the data for 1990, more than half of the population in Peru had improved sanitation. This was less than the almost three-quarters of Brazils population with better sanitation but greater than the less than half of population with improved sanitation in Bolivia. In the latest data, Peru was able to raise the percentage to nearly three-quarters of the population. Brazil further increased the percentage. Peru and Brazil were able to secure improved sanitation for three-quarters of the population to meet the goal of halving the ratio of population without sanitation. Bolivia was unable to meet this goal by failing to secure sanitation for 1 in 2 people or 50 percent of the population.

The Gini Coefficient is one measure of equality. Lower than half mark means proximity to perfect equality and higher than half mark means proximity to perfect inequality (The Economist 2010). In 1990, Peru was below but nearly at the half mark, Brazil was above half, and Bolivia was below half. After nearly two decades, Peru was still at the same level, Brazil had a lower coefficient but still above half and Bolivia worsened with above half coefficient. There remain high levels of inequality in these countries.
 
The GDP per capita (PPP constant 2005 ) reflects productivity and the economic condition of countries. In 1990, Peru had values lower than Brazil but higher than Bolivia. In the latest data, the ranking remains the same albeit all countries increased the values with similar growth rates for Peru and Brazil and lower growth rates for Bolivia.

The indicators are important in evaluating development progress in Latin America, especially in capturing year-on-year changes and allowing inter-country comparison. However, there is need to consider more diverse and comprehensive indicators together with country context to have a clear and complete picture of the state of development of the countries.

December 1996 was the historic month for the Guatemalan army and guerrilla fighters, as they signed the peace accord that brought to an end the bloodiest and longest civil wars ever held in the history of Central America. The conflict continued for thirty six years and according to the 1999 report of Truth Commission sponsored by United Nations, it left in its wave more than 200,000 dead or disappeared, with majority of them being Maya Indians. Ninety percent of these killings were caused by the atrocities committed by army, paramilitary organizations and the state. Greg Grandin presented these horrific details with his lucid eyes in his book The Blood of Guatemala. Grandin was an historian at the Duke University and worked as a consultant for the Truth Commission. In his tenure, he gained considerable experience of the Guatemalas past including role played by the Indians in the social and economic formation of the place.

There is no doubt of the fact that several scholars interpreted and produced explanations on the Guatemalas four decades of violence and repressions in the Latin America. Some of these studies went back as far as to the nineteenth century and found varied distinctions and differences that arose between Ladinos and Indians during that crucial phase of nation building. In these studies are shown the ways liberal Ladino had exploited the peasants and workers to establish the export-oriented economy and how Indians resisted them. For these researchers, Ladinos were the exploiters while the Indians were exploited and subjugated population but Greg Grandin produced different interpretations. His study goes beyond the conventional ethnic lines to show us the histories at both the local as well as national level uncovers the nationalistic endeavors of both Ladino and Indian and helps in explaining the structure of power that ultimately resulted in the war in Guatemala in 1950s.

Grandin examines the Guatemalan history in the most chronological way showing events of each day as well as most important phases of the Guatemala past like the late colonial period, riots of 1786, cholera epidemic of 1837, the rule of the conservative regime under Jose Rafael Carrera, the transformation towards a liberal rule after 1871, the establishment of export economy on the basis of coffee plantation in the post-1871 period and ultimately the decade of democracy i.e. from 1944 to 1954. Democracy decade was the period when peasants and workers as a result of reforms raised their unprecedented voices in the country. Grandin shows how before 1944, Ladino state, just like others, viewed Indians as obstacles of modernization and only believed integration as the way for perusal. Grandin study comes to an end at the point in 1954 when anti communist forces in support of the CIA dethroned the elected president, Jacobi Arbenz, and thus initiated forty years of civil war.

The book deciphers history of Kiche elites in the city of Quetzaltenango from the colonial period towards the mid-twentieth century- these elites or principales, as called by Grandin, strived to assert their position for prestige and power at Guatemala and surprisingly were able to retain the same for more than two centuries. They were able to exert their power and dominating position inspite of many challenges like Bourbon Reforms, a shift of power from conservatism to liberalism and coming of the coffee plantations during late1800s.  From another aspect, Grandin is also able to redress much wider issues like what went behind the solidification of the state power, the nationalistic trends of both the Ladinos and Indians and their existence in Guatemala and the role played by Kiche elites to embrace both the modern world of Ladinos as well as traditional world of Indians. They welcomed all the new developments like construction of railroads etc, sending children to schools, showing photographs of themselves, dressing in traditional dress, constructing of Indian monuments, and holding Mayan beauty pageants. Kiche elites claimed that both the Indian peasants and workers were required to erect a modern and coffee producing country thus they were able to develop a distinguished Indian nationalism. More importantly, local resources were controlled by principales and also Indian population was progressively proletarianized by them as a result Ladino elites were depended on them. Grandin opines no doubt both Indians and Ladino elites were impressed by Kiche elites but in the process this produced an apparently contradictory effect ethnic identity deepened while state power increased (p. 54). It is within this historical social and economical climate, Grandin makes us realize what all that went behind the civil war.

As long as Kiche elites were acting as a medieval men between the Indians and a state, there was a peace in Guatemala but within ten years 1944-1954, the power structure altered, as democracy became the norm and peasants and workers gained power.

Acquisition of lands by the Indian commoners in 1950 on account of the agrarian reforms caused direct threat to the Kiches position. In direct reproach, they joined anti communist groups, who were strictly against the reforms. They broke all the ties with the Indians creating a further divide and making grounds for the leashing of civil wars.
 
Gradin did the ground breaking work by giving us well researched study of all the events that became the root cause of the war and the effects of the same. It also opened yet again scope for further studies and more arguments but there is a need to go further into the position and role played by Kiche. But overall it is a good historical piece which has looked beyond the conventional thoughts and boundaries that go deep within the Guatemalan history. He has also linked elites and commoners, Ladinos and Indians and showed how the actions of the principales at the community level had deeply impacted both the Indian commoners as well as nation state. He has also illustrated how local people and the state were bound and were connected to each group while maintaining their individual identity. He has also effectively dealt with the questions arisen amidst the ethnic and class relations, relations between the nation and the state, identity and nationalism. Overall it is a good anthropological as well as historical study.

Juan Manuel de Rosas was born on March 30, 1793 to one of the richest families in the Rio de la Plata Region. His original full name was Juan Manuel Jos Domingo Ortiz de Rozas y Lpez de Osornio but later change his family name from Rozas to Rosas after her mother accused him of stealing some of their cattles. He worked as an arriero1 at a young age in the fields and then married Mara de la Encarnacin de Ezcurra y Arguibel. Later on, he built a meat-salting plant that flourished in a short period of time. His business was so successful that ranch owners created laws to terminate his plant. He then lived as a gaucho2 after establishing his own ranch. In 1820, a civil war surfaced then Rosas formed a company of gauchos, earning their respect and becoming a hero because of his actions to reinstate piece in his country. He became the governor of Buenos Aires from 1829 to 1832. In spite of the peoples support to Rosas, he did not run for a second term while still having his status as a strong leader. He was then offered absolute power in 1835 and created a militia that tortured and killed anyone who opposed him. During the end of his regime in 1852, some of his trusted officials turned their backs on him and formed an army to overthrow Rosas. After the defeat at the Battle of Caseros, Rosas lost his powers and was exiled to United Kingdom until his death on 1877.

During the regime of Rosas, the Platine region (Argentina and its neighboring countries Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil) was sort of in turmoil. Juan Manuel de Rosas desired to put into reality an old Argentine dream, to restore the past Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Achieving this dream would make Argentina the center of a dominant and powerful republican nation. Rosas scoured the region to search for people who also have his ideology. He became engrossed even to the neighboring countries domestic politics to gain their trust, thus making them allies. To further get their attention, Rosas, in the long run, financed rebellions and civil wars.

The first term of Rosas as governor of was from 1829 up to 1932. His administration was deemed as one of the most successful in terms of his capability to preserve the harmony among Buenos Aires and the other countryside areas. He was supported by former dictators Facundo  Quiroga and Estanislao Lopez. During his years out of position, Rosas formed a military movement whose goal was to exterminate the indigenous or aboriginal people located in the south of Argentina. They annihilated ethnic groups of nomadic horse-mounted Indians. Because of his actions, he became a man with an astonishing character meeting the requirements to the manners and appeal of the gauchos. He gained a limitless reputation in his nation, thus giving him dictatorial powers.

During the time he was not in position, the country was a total mess so the people reinstated him as the governor. This time, he was different in terms of his policies and actions than during his first term. He became a dictator who necessitated the support to his Federalist government to all of the people. During the time of Rosas second term, citizens are forced to put on the red Federalist insignia. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento described in his book Facundo Or, Civilization and Barbarism The red ribbon is a materialization of the terror that accompanies you everywhere, in the streets, in the bosom of the family it must be thought about when dressing, when undressing, and ideas are always engraved upon us by association3. The streets of Buenos Aires were full of Juan Manuel Rosas pictures. To further implement his will and actions, Rosas created a secret organization of spies and thugs supervised personally by Rosas. The militia was called mazorca4 and its roles on Rosas regime were to put the dictators enemies and critics to jail or exile to other countries, torture and ultimately murder them. Repression of the media was present.

Anyone who opposed the tyrant Rosas was tortured, murdered, or exiled. Some the dissidents during Rosas regime were  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiDomingo_Faustino_Sarmiento o Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Domingo Faustino Sarmiento,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiJosC3A9_MarC3ADa_Paz o Jos Mara Paz Jos Mara Paz, HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiJuan_Bautista_Alberdi o Juan Bautista Alberdi Juan Bautista Alberdi,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiBartolomC3A9_Mitre o Bartolom Mitre Bartolom Mitre,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwindex.phptitleSalvador_M._del_Carrilactioneditredlink1 o Salvador M. del Carril (page does not exist) Salvador M. del Carril, and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiEsteban_Echeverria o Esteban Echeverria Esteban Echeverria. On the last fractions of his tyranny, several trusted officials of Rosas betrayed him and formed an army to put him out of position. One of these was General Urquiza, the governor of the Entre Rios province. Much further, the other provinces as well as Brazil and Uruguay joined the movement to take the throne out of Rosas. Then, the last battle participated by Rosas was his defeat at the Battle of Caseros. He lost his war and was forced to exile to the United Kingdom until he died in 1877.

Life under the cruel regime of the dictator Juan Manuel Rosas was violent. Sarmiento wrote his book Facundo to attack the rule of Rosas. Through his book, Sarmiento introduced education and civilized class to contradict Rosas action of brute force and total political power to get rid of his critics. Rosas had the ideology of recreating the Rio de la Plata, but through the course of his goals, he became cruel and selfish that gave the consequences to the people he was suppose to serve.

The relationship of Latin America with the rest of the world has always been interesting and complex because the countries belonging to this part of the world are viewed and treated uniquely by the rest of the world, even by their neighbors. How and when all this began cannot really be pinpointed at once. History only shows that the development of Latin America is very different from the other parts of the world. The countries from this region reached their current status because of the hardships they all had to go through in the past  The history of Latin America is interesting because it is strange and romantic but it is not easy (Rippy 4). And yet, despite its image of bordering to chaos at most times, Latin America survived to become one of the biggest and most influential cultures today.

Sadly, the perception or knowledge that the world today has of Latin America is very limited. Many only see the proliferation of intermixed races, the poverty experienced by most of the population, or the wars caused by several unstable governments. They do not understand the trials, changes, and successes that the Latin Americans had to go through. Because of this, they do not clearly see the depth and future potential of Latin America to be one of the powerful nations. Visitors of Latin America should see that the present situation of the region today is a result of hard-earned experiences that have been tested by time repetitively.

Some of the famous icons of Latin American culture would be their unique music, their festivities, the image of the Latin lover, the wars and revolutions every now and then, and even Che Guevara. But there is more to Latin America than just these icons. Even the initial impression we have of Latin America is not enough to really justify its rich past. The perception of many people is clouded by the stigma that Latin America is a poor and chaotic part of the world. These icons that people remember even have their own significant stories to tell. As Skidmore points out in his article, when we move beyond these caricatures, which have their own truths to tell, we find Latin America to be a complex region. Much of the recorded story of Latin America goes all the way back to the Colonial Era when Christopher Columbus arrived in some countries that are part of this region. Their arrival in the 1500s signified the beginning of changes at the Latin American countries. The Spanish expanded and administered the new Latin American colonies through the vice royalty system, the largest scale of Spanish colonial administration (Marston 343). Latin America had been under the power of conquering countries for many years, but was part of the first countries to liberate themselves when Spain began to weaken in the 1800s. Latin America was among the first to claim a national identity for themselves, and despite facing economic decline today, they were able to rise again after separating from their colonizers.

Also, there are regions in Latin America that were never subjected to the full control of the colonizing countries either because of their remoteness like the Amazon or because of local resistance like some parts of the Andes (Marston 345). Up to the present, the marvels of the Amazon continue to be one of the wonders of Latin America. But the Amazon also became the home to many of the slaves that escape then. So if you are planning to visit Latin America, you should see its richness in diversity and that every part of the region, be it the cities, the countryside, or the deep forests, has its own tales to tell and unique contributions to the nation and the world.

Just by observing the Latin American societies today, one could very well see that their lives portray the definite contrasts among those who are the rich, privileged, educated, and powerful compared to those who are the poor, illiterate, and powerless, living in underprivileged circumstances. The population of Latin America is also composed of intermixed races as a result of colonialism. Colonialism changed the demographic profile of Latin America through intermixing of European and Indian peoples and the importation of slaves from Africa to the Americas (Marston 355). The mixing of races is an effect of the colonization era, and the product of mixed ancestries is one of the most unique qualities of Latin Americans.

Two of the most explored realities in Latin America are its political problems and economic struggles. Latin America has suffered a lot of chaos and financial crises and until today, we still see these problems threatening to recur. Many see these problems as two separate things when in fact they go hand in hand. The countries of Latin America also continuously face political instability, marked frequently by dictatorship (Skidmore 5). Each country has their own versions of problematic governments and civil wars. These problems cause investors to be dissuaded and progress to be stalled. Latin America is wealthy in terms of natural resources such as silver, gold, petroleum, gas, copper, iron ore, coffee, sugar, and soybeans. But their poverty rate remains so high because of mismanagement in governance and because money was centralized to the powerful families. In fact, dictatorship became very frequent in the 1960s and 1970s. Many perceived these events as effects of the uncultured lifestyles of Latin Americans. This is not entirely correct because it was necessary for the authoritarian government to carry out such policies that require being hard on their people in order to have a more established economy (Skidmore 9). Yet, because they greatly suffered, the Latin American citizens, especially those who are below the poverty line, rebelled against the dictatorships and communistic practices. This had been a bloody and chaotic part of Latin American history however, it should be noted that it was done for liberty. By 1980s, Latin Americans sought to end military dictatorship and open state policy to the influences of democratic participation (Keen and Haynes 508). Hence, when it reached the 1990s almost all countries of the region, with the exception of Cuba, have established democratic and people-elected governments already.

It has not been a smooth-sailing trip for the Latin American countries, and here lies their strength in survival and building themselves. Latin America has improved immensely since the colonial period. In most Latin American countries, the combination of order and progress led to the rapid growth of the primary export sector with clients from Europe and the United States (Foweraker, Landman, and Harvey 15). But the Latin American countries still have a lot to improve on as the threats of disorder are still very prominent.

Today, Latin America has already come a long way. At present, they are already on the steady rise to economic stability. While the region is still far from attaining the level of Asian and Eastern Europe countries, competitiveness is on the rise among South Americas ABC countries  Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (Padgett). The growing economy of these three countries has helped Latin America as a whole, despite the financial crisis experienced by the world.

With all factors considered, one must realize at once that the things prominently known about Latin America are limited or too simple. Every Latin American country has its own rich stories to tell. The history of the region has paved way for all its unique characteristics and appeal. Many of the traditions and cultural practices have been preserved in Latin America, despite the heavy migration that is being practiced there. Every fact is significant, and every event of history is worth learning about and rediscovering again.

Dozens of young Latinos interact on the Mexican border forming the basis for which the identity formation among Mexican-origin border youths is studied. Such study was done in a concise way by Bejarano, which is revealed in his book. The book captures the labyrinths these youths navigate to finally shape their identities. Along this border, Latina and Latino youths find life already challenging and the borderland is indeed a place that presents continual affirmations and contradictions about identity. The association between three components of ethnic identity embedded in affirmation, exploration and resolution as well as factors related to family neighborhood and individual characteristics are the fundamental questions explored by Cynthia Bejarano. Based on this book, this paper seeks to examine the politics of identity along the Mexican border, the factors that influence identity development for Latina youths  along the border region and how the identity constructions influence the lives of Latino youths in American society.

Primarily, the identity building constructions of urban Latinas and Latinos youths living in the borderland along the border of the US-Mexico are dominantly explored. Bejarano better define the factors that lead youths to identify themselves with the various ethnicities encompassed within Latinas, Latinos, Mexicans and Americans. Accordingly, these varying identities ultimately results in the social stratification of the adolescents into a hierarchy created through discrimination and internal colonialism (Bejarano, 2007).

This book reveals identity politics and how it influences young people as forms of communication and the cultural space that they occupy in the environment of schooling. According, by showing that identities are created and subsequently influenced, the politics of identities in this milieu encompass the complexities of geopolitics and socio-cultural influences. The fundamental question to be answered is that politics of identity borders the unexplored divisions among the youths whose identities are located along a wide continuum of Mexicans.

In addition, the primary constitution of identity resides in the topics such as the creation of distinct styles that reinforces the differences between Latinos and Mexicans. Bejarano (2007) points out that the use of language further distinguishes these identities and determines how youths in the cosmopolitan region of the border view themselves and subsequently shape their different identities.  It is plausible to argue that, the element of social stratification perpetuated by internal colonialism and other processes, form what is fairly called politics of identity along the Mexican border.

These and several other issues along the border are shown to aggravate how the Latinos in the border ethnically identify themselves as Mexicans or Chicanos. Essentially, this approach helps them to explain their entire spectrum of identity. In contrast, identity is largely portrayed as a reflection of educational as well as immigration experiences where the complicated relations of adolescent youths along the border shape their identities as a result of the evident and available identity making process. The ultimate glimpse into the present politics of identity provides adequate information about the diversity among the youths as well as their constant efforts to define, create and shape their identities as a result of the available social cultural structures (Bejarano, 2007).

Apart from the politics of identity, there are a host of factors that influence the development of identity for Latino youths along the border. To begin with, the role of the social policy is the fundamental factor that influence the development of identity. These youths at the borderland comprise of the second generation migrants and thus, their efforts towards identity formation are predetermined by their social connectedness and the entire role that social policy plays in a society. According to Bejarano (2007), behind identity development, there are factors that are positively associated with adolescent ethnic identity of the Latino. As a result, the family ethnic socialization is thus directly associated with resolution and exploration as variables suggested to determine the image a Latino youth adopts within the forces of association between family ethnic socialization, ethnic affirmation based on neighborhood characteristics and parental behaviors.

Given that Mexico shares its border with America, the unique link between this border relationship facilitates the development of unique identities. The economic development, the cultural infrastructure of the region and the political force contributes to the development of certain mindsets among the youths living along the border, thus affecting their identity development. Furthermore, the eminent disparities in terms of access to and utilizations of the social amenities are a force factor behind the development of identities along the border. In certain instances, these disparities are intra cultural, intercultural, from the same racial background and from the same family (Bejarano, 2007).

Lack of language skills, is another pointer to identity development. It therefore follows that poor understanding of values and inadequate education forms the principal impediment to the concept of well-being. This focuses on the cultural wellbeing of the youth that leans in particular to the comparative insights from Latino, thus the global and educational perspective on social experiences influences how they develop their identities.

The constructions of identity through socialization affects affect the lives of the Latino youths in American society. Accordingly, the male-ism in the Latino- American boys, begin with  the cultural expectation that young boys will grow into being men and although there is also some explicit expectations that girls will be respected, they are obliged to be more submissive and obedient. With regard to this, the identities constructed by individual youths affect the beginning of conceptions of man and woman. Bejarano (2007) points out succinctly that the concept that these youths will of course have other images about themselves and life, there concepts characterizing male behavior as well as personality, has the potential of influencing the Latino boys to be socialized in corrective matters that are harsher than girls thus their own sense of self worthiness is brought to their attention.

The sharp dichotomization of gender roles in some segments of Mexican community are apparently an additive to the misunderstanding that Latino in the American society may entirely be affected. Typically, boys may learn to settle matters by fighting with others in the society and this conceptualization is geared towards fighting to win. On the other hand, this interactional effect of identity construction solidifies hyper-masculinity and in some sense, a cultural image of male honor, respect and specific gender roles is clearly drawn. The constructions of identities lay foundations for the striking behavioral change among Latino youths in the American society. To some extent, initial acts of defiance occur silently but later become an open challenge and a shift in the Latino youth males identity begin to manifest. This characteristic shift may vary in conception and intensity considering their geographical location, with a more pronounced shifts occurring in locations that are farther away from the border.

To recap, the data drawn from Bejaranos book builds on theories of youth identity transitions. The entire book maps a process of negotiated identity among incarcerated young men. From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that patterns of identity transition are by patterns of self synthesis, self preservation and situational self transformation. The argument afore highlights the efforts attempted by the youths to retain a positive view of the self, amid very challenging environment .As such, the notion of cultural citizenship becomes an alternative way of accepting the Latino culture .As such, cultural citizenship recognizes the cultural richness these individuals bring to a nation. The question of identity is viewed within the spectrum that goes beyond the legality of citizenship and the obscures the derogatory stereotypes that have perpetuated separation and conflict.

Latin America refers to a geographical region in the Americas which is under a vast use of the Romance languages. The Romance languages are those which have a common stock, Latin. Some of the countries herein also speak French. As opposed to what many think of Latin America as a small region, the area is so huge, spanning about 21,069,501 kilometers squared. This means a lot. First, that Latin America cannot be wished away in world politics, international affairs or in the pursuit of the American interests is well attested by the fact that Latin America claims 3.9 of the earths surface, or more specifically 4.1 of the earths land. At the same time, the population of Latin America according to the 2009 estimates now hits the 569 million mark.

This above is a contrast to the insinuations made in the public sector about Latin America being dispensable in the US interest and world politics.

Historical Facts about Latin America 
According to Marston (345), contrary to what many in the United States believe, vis--vis the media, the economic, political and ecological integration of Latin America can be traced back to 500 years. This is as far as the Spanish and Portugueses invasion into the area is concerned. It is the capturing and subduing of the indigenous empires such as the Aztecs and the Incan in a very inhuman manner which paved way for the antithetical stance Latin American countries adopt towards the US and its Allies (Skidmore and Smith, 2005, 75).

As opposed to how the Americans and US media houses know it, it must be noted that these indigenous societies were already full fledged with their own political, religious and economic culture. As a matter of fact, the area remained full of silver and gold so that the Spanish crown was overtly concerned with exploiting these values. To achieve these feats, the Spanish crown charged his administrators to these ends, while using the conversion of the masses into the Roman Catholicism to thwart or undermine the prospects of any resistance. With the accentuation of time, the Spanish crown had already possessed the land in Latin America and turned the inhabitants thereof into slaves in their own land (Marston, 357).
 
Interesting facts on Latin America 
Because of selective journalism in the US, at the mention of Latin America, Hugo Chaves belligerence and bellicose anti-US political stances come to the average American mind. However, the truth is that Latin America houses the worlds biggest forest and rivers, thereby being a host to many animal and plant species. Wipe away Latin America, and a deathblow one has delivered to biology and its sub-disciplines.

To Morley (2000, 40), It is most interesting to note that the worlds largest forest, the Amazon, is located in Latin America, particularly, Brazil. The forest is reputed to have the widest range of biodiversity since it is a wet tropical forest. Fact has it that wet tropic forests sustain most specie-rich biome. This makes the forest have the most species, compared to forests in Africa and Asia. This biodiversity also comes through the fact that the Amazonian forests cover the largest tract of land as a rainforest in the Americas. Out of all the species known to man, a tenth must come from the Amazon. This is as far as both the flora and the fauna are concerned.

Specifically, the Amazon shelters approximately tens of thousands of plants, 2.5 million species of insects, about 2,000 animals and birds. At the moment, at least 3,000 fish, 40,000 plant species, 1,294 birds, 428 amphibians, 427 mammals and 378 reptiles have undergone scientific classification and taxonomy in this same forest. In about the same interesting wavelength, Amazon is reputed to house one in five of the worlds birds. As scientists would have it, out of the 128,843 of the worlds invertebrate species 96,660 species come from Brazil alone, due to the Amazon forest.  

The uniqueness the Amazon forest bequeaths Latin America unrelentingly continues when takes the plant species into consideration. Scientists estimate that within one square kilometers, there are over 150,000 higher plants species and 75,000 different trees. Generally, one square kilometer in the Amazon rainforest may contain 90,790 tones of living plants. Up to the present, it is estimated that 438,000 plant species of both social and economic interest have already been registered within the region. As this is not enough, many more species remain to be catalogued.

Of a particular instance, the Amazons green leafy plant areas are known to vary by about 25 owing to the seasonal changes. It is well known that the leaves therein expand during dry seasons with the sunlight reaching its optimal temperature. The leaves then abscise during the cloudy wet seasons. As was deliberated upon in the Kyoto Protocol, in this sense, these fluctuations help nature or the environment strike the delicate balance of carbon critical for photosynthesis and respiration.

Again, it is through selective journalism that one would conjure in his or her mind concerning the Amazon, total serenity and absence of alarm. On the contrary, the Amazons beauty and wonder is complemented by its nature which can be seen to be characterized by oxymoron. This is because, the Amazon is known as home of the hazards predatory creatures such as anaconda, jaguar and the black caiman. In the tiny streams trickling their way in the Amazon forests are the electric eels and the piranhas. The electric eels have the potency to produce electric shock with the ability to either stun or kill. The piranhas on the other hand have the ability to bite and seriously injure human beings.

Among the dangers are several species with poison darts, frogs which secrete the toxic lipophilic alkaloid, and other numerous disease-causing vectors and parasites. In the Amazon, are vampire bats which have the ability to spread the rabies virus. To the effect of the above, malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever remain highly contractible in the Amazon area.  

According to Williams (2006, 84), in the same Latin America, is the Amazon River which is also the worlds largest river.  So big is the Amazon that when it rains parts of its banks exceed the 120 miles width. It is because of this that the Amazon is referred to as The River Sea. The Amazon River contains more than 3,000 recognized fish species. This number keeps growing as scientists keep researching. Alongside the Orinoco, the river remains the chief habitat of the boto the Amazon River dolphin, Inia geoffrensis.

According to Skidmore and Smith (2005, 75), this boto specie is the largest river dolphin, having the capacity to grow up to 8.5 ft 2.6 meters. Besides the boto, is the tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis a dolphin specie found in the Amazon basin river and in the South America coastal waters. In the Amazon River is the Amazonian Manatee, a conspicuous mammal which resides in the waters of the Amazonian basin. The piranha in the Amazon River, due to its gregarious tendency congregates in large schools that are formidable enough to attack livestock or even humans at times (Douglas and Sven, 2002, 84).

In particular, it is the Red-bellied piranha Pygocentrus nattereri which has the penchant for attacking humans. 4,000 kilometers of the Amazon River is also a home to the Carcharhinus leucas the bull shark, specifically in Peru and Iquitos. The Arapaima Arapaima Gigas as a South American tropical freshwater fish also lives in the Amazon. This fish can measure up to 4.5 meters and 200 kilograms. Other species present in the Amazon include the Arowana, the Candiru a parasitic freshwater catfish of the Trichomycteridae family, the electric eel and the anaconda.

Latin America is the region stretching from the far north starting from Mexico, to El Salvador, to the Honduras to the French Guyana to the south extending to Brazil, Bolivia, to Paraguay and down to Argentina. The region is rich and poor in many ways. From their economic diversity to social diversity, to political diversity to ecological diversity. The Latin Americans has ecological diversity supporting bioprospects, for new medicine and products for commercial uses. They have the payment for environmental services a unique program paying the local people in their efforts of protecting the environment in efforts of conserving the environment. Again they are paid under the Kyoto protocol to reduce the greenhouse emissions (the Kyoto protocol 342).

This region is indeed old and young at the same time. They are old by the standard of nationhood. They were colonized and conquered by the Spanish and the Portuguese in 1492 creating new social order in domination and intermingling between the Europeans, the Africans and the indigenous communities that included the Indians. The region is young in that it got independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule in the 19th century an thus young making the region uniquely young and old (Smith 3).

Latin America has had stable times both tumultuous and stable times in her history. Ranging from political coups, political violence, armed movements, social revolutions have characterized the tumultuous times of the region with economic persistence has been the peace for instance in Mexico 1910, Bolivia with the traditional society standing united. But this has come with an exception of Cuba continuing to pursue her socialism up to date (Skidmore 5).

This region has wonders that always amaze with independence and dependence at the same time. Sovereignty by 1830 of all nations with exception of the Caribbean basin was a culmination of nationhood but this was jeopardized by penetration of the British, the French and the United States. With political weakness following the invasion by these outside influences, power became ambiguous only having limited effect with much of decisions by their leaders interfered by the Europeans and North Americans.

The Latin America is interestingly prosperous and poor in the sense that its a treasure of natural resources ranging from gold and silver during the ancient times and today coffee for instance in brazil, petroleum ores, sugar and soy beans. Mothers without hope, children without food, workers without jobs summarizes the famous saying beggar atop a mountain of gold, what a shock making her citizenry poor and vulnerable but with the image of endless wealth. So fascinating is this poor rich region (Smith 7).

Latin America remains a paradox to understand. Spanish language is spoken everywhere, with exception of brazil, the region covers a vast variety of geographical area with sharp differences in physical features for instance, the tropical forest of Amazon  basin, to the arid plains of Mexico and to the Andean mountain ranges stretching the full length of western south America. In addition, the region has a vast variety of people from the poor to the rich, illiterate to learned people, the wealthy entrepreneurs to the street beggars all in different racial groups including the Indians, the whites and the African immigrants (Skidmore 3).

Analysts describe this region in different theories depicting the differences political, economic and social
structures over different times. Its held economic growth would generate social change thus more developed politics. This would spin change from rural to urban bringing changes in values, moderation, prosperity and stability. But harsh reality is that economic growth brought inequality.

Over the years, from the 1960s to date a lot has changed with elected governments, economic prospects generated by pressure from international creditors and need to overcome financial crises like Mexico in 1994, brazil in 1999 and Argentina in 2001. This makes the region to have the most interesting scenarios for travelers to the Latin America.

Latin American is blessed with numerous physical features that include the tropical forest of the Amazon basin. The Amazon basin which host Amazon forest the largest in the world covers more than eight countries and is said to be the source of more than one fifth of fresh water flowing on the planet earth. You can not miss one out of ten world known tree species in this luxuriant forest, although not all plants and animals that live in the forest are known because of the expansive nature of the forest making some areas inaccessible.

More than sixty per cent of the forest is contained within Brazil, followed by Peru with 13 per cent and small section in Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana. The forest covers almost half of the planets rainforest and as result in 2008 it was nominated as a candidate to one of the new Seven Wonders of the World. It is feared that due to the massive deforestation taking place in the region, fifty five per cent of the forest could be gone by the year 2030 (Douglas and Sven, 8). Its a rooming disaster not only for animals and plants that are contained in the forest but for the whole world.

Historians suggest that the forest was formed during the Eocene era and it has been in existence for more than 55 million years (Morley, 40). The forest is believed to have spread out across the continent as result of wet climate that provided for moist and warmth. For quite long time the forest remained free of savanna vegetation, however climatic changes allowed savanna regions to extend into the forest. As time went by tremendous changes happened with the forest covered region. In the mid Eocene era, the Amazon basin is believed to have been slip in the middle allowing water on the eastern side to flow into the Atlantic ocean while the west water into Pacific ocean. Later as the Andes ranges appeared a larger basin was created. Archaeological evidence suggests that, the first humans to inhibit the basin settled in the region at least eleven thousands years ago.

As the largest wet tropical forest of the world, it biodiversity is non comparable. Since this forest is home to close to one out of ten known plants and animals species, it has the largest collection of animals and plants than any other wet forest around the globe. The forest is home to million of insect species, more than forty thousands species of plants and several mammals and birds species. Scientist estimates claim that presently there are 75, 000 types of trees of trees and hundred thousands species of higher plants.

Today the aesthetic, economic and climatic value of the forest is under threat of extinction due to rapid rates of deforestation taking place. The main caused of concerting the forested land to non-forest land is the human settlement and agricultural development of the land (Williams). During the mid 20th century interior access of the forest was restricted and the forest remained dense and land close to the forest was used for cultivation of food crops. Prolonged cultivation of the farms next to the forest rendered the soil infertile and as result due to the colonists inability to control their field farmers moved to clear new areas. Since early 1990s the basin has lost more than half a million square kilometers of its forest covered land. With the present rate of deforestation it is estimated that the forest will be reduced by 55 per cent.  

Latin America is home to a wide diversity of people some of whose roots can be traced back to Africa and Western Europe. That most countries in Latin America are classified as either developing or underdeveloped is not in contention. That, however, must not be construed to mean that Latin American countries, and their people, are insignificant in world affairs. In fact, Latin America is home to the worlds largest water tower (the Amazon basin), a booming beef industry, a flourishing sugar industry, a world-renown musical history, and immense mineral resources. Although most of what is known about the region begins with the arrival of European explorers (and later, colonizers), the region has a much longer history.

History of Latin America
The term Latin America only came into use in the 19th century in what observers have referred to a something of a compromise (History World). To this day, Latin America comprises countries which were colonized by the Spanish. There is however a significant exception pertaining to the colonial history. Brazil, one of the largest and fastest growing economies in the region, was colonized by the Portuguese. The region could thus not be referred to as Spanish America as that would exclude Brazil. The region thus came to be referred to as Latin America as both Portuguese and Spanish, the main languages spoken in the region, are Romance or derived from the ancient Latin language. The European colonizers brought Roman Catholicism which is still the pre-dominant religion in the region.

Prior to the arrival of the European explorers, the region known as Latin America today was inhabited by indigenous communities among them, the Maya, Aztec, Chibcha and the Inca who had inhabited the region for decades and who had established developed advanced social structures and their history and genetic make-up are still the foci of much interest to historians (Resendez  Kemp 284)..

Christopher Columbus became the first European to set foot in South America in 1492. The debate over Columbus first stop in the Americas continues to this day, with historians believing his first stop to have been one of Grand Turk Island, Plana Cays, Samana Cay or San Salvador. Although Columbus voyage to the New World is still regarded as one of the worlds most significant voyages, what remains unknown to many is that Columbus discovery of the New World was a devastating failure on the part of Columbus, and seamen and explorers he commanded. Columbus was the overall-in-charge of three ships christened, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. The former two were captained by Vicente Yanez Pinzon and Martin Alonso Pinzon respectively (Minster).

Columbus had sought funding from the Queen of Spain, with the promise of finding a shorter route to China, which would give Spain easier access to Chinese silk and spices for which the Chinese were known then. Instead, Columbus found himself in unknown lands.  After exploring the modern-day Bahamas, Columbus and his team set sail again, reaching Cuba about a fortnight after they arrived at the New World. His next stop was Haiti, which Columbus hastily renamed La Espanola. Disappointed at being unable to find China, and the new Sea route, a distraught Columbus started his return journey to Spain, carrying his only findings some trinkets and a few bedraggled natives from Hispaniola (Minster). Columbus hoped that Queen Isabela would encourage slave trade and he was greatly disturbed when the queen declined to support slave trade with the New World.

The Mighty Amazon
At the heart of the region lies one of the most significant geographical and world-renown features on the earth surface the Amazon basin. The basin is covered by a dense rainforest which covers parts of Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guyana. The wide diversity of plant and animal species within this rainforest is arguably the widest of all world ecosystems.

While any visitor to Latin America would obviously know or have heard about the Amazon forest, few know that the rainforest has been a permanent feature of the Amazon basin since the Cretaceous, meaning that the forest has existed for the last 55 million years (Maslin, Malhi, Phillips  Cowling 477). Over the years that Native Americans have inhabited the basin, the Amazon forest has been their chief source of food, forst products, protection and insurance, and ecological services including attracting rainfall (Sheil  Wunder 9). The pace at which the Amazon basin has been losing the rainforest cover due to deforestation is alarming. The destruction of the rainforest has been blamed for rapid die-offs of many species some of which were only found in the forest. It is therefore in the interest of the entire world that the Amazon forest must be conserved.

Colonial History
The arrival of Christopher Columbus to the modern-day Latin America marked the beginning of the path towards the colonization of the region. Shipbuilding technology was by then growing rapidly and not long after his first voyage to the region, Columbus set sail for the second voyage in 1493. Unlike the first voyage which had involved three ships, he had 17 ships and 1500 men for the second voyage. Columbus and his team of seamen visited the region several times later, managing to arouse the attention of other European seafarers and traders who also visited Latin America in search of gold and land. Soon, the Spanish gained control of the new Latin American colonies with Mexico City as the headquarters of the viceroyalties of Mexico and Central America, and Lima as the headquarters of the viceroyalties of Andean and southern South America (Marston 343).

The aims of establishing the colonies were to exploit gold, silver and other precious minerals, and convert the native population to Roman Catholicism. A fifth of the profits from mining went, as a rule, to the Spanish crown. The colonies were supposed to be self-sufficient and were supposed to make use of available land and labour (Marston 343).

The impact of Europeans and their consequent colonization of the region had some devastating effects on the indigenous populations.  Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, the Americas had remained isolated from all other people and the inhabitants had developed immunity only for the diseases which were prevalent in the region then. The Europeans however brought with them diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox against which the Native Americans had absolutely no immunity. Experts have estimated that as much as 75 percent of the Latin American population perished in the 16th century as a result of the epidemics (Marston 344). The European colonizers did not bring just diseases into Latin America they also introduced new animals, pests and crops including wheat, cattle, sheep, pigs, sugar, bananas, cotton, coffee and rats which were carried on the European ships (Marston 344).

Spain retained its rule over the larger part of the region until 1620 when Britain, France and Germany engaged Spain in bitter wars over the control of trade between Europe and the Americas. These wars, and widespread smuggling perpetrated by merchants and landlords who resented Spains stringent controls on taxation and trade, worked to weaken Spains hold on the region (Morston 345). The beginning of the end of Spanish colonization came in 1808 when the French commander Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Spain. A series of bloody revolts inspired by the French and American revolutions shook the core of the colonizers hold leading to the independence of many of the Latin American countries. The independence however had its adverse effects on the Latin American economies. Reluctance of foreigners to invest in the region, the brain-drain occasioned by the return of Spaniards to Europe, and civil wars contributed to the economic decline of the Latin America (Marston 347). Another problem was that the leaders who succeeded the European colonizers, rather than build new structures, retained the colonial hierarchies and biased institutions (Palti 601). With political stabilization in Latin America, the economies of Latin American countries have grown significantly.