Latin-American Studies

Aztec refers to Nahuatl speaking people from the central region of Mexico. There are other groups who are related to this community they include the Acolhua and the Tepanic. This essay analyses the history of the Aztec people, their culture and how they survived the Spaniard conquest.

The Aztecs were located in the south central region of Mexico. They lived in Mesoamerica highlands in the area of basins which are separated by dissected mountain ranges and eroded volcanic peaks.

The Aztecs originated from the remote north at around the early 13th century. They were moving around the valley of Mexico in their struggle of survival. Their experiences went to the extent of Aztecs being enslaved by another tribe. They stopped their migratory pattern in 1325 when they settled on the south west of Lake Texaco. This was after  they saw an eagle sitting on a pricking pear stem. To the community, this was an omen which announced the location where they should settle and make their city (Msdu.edu, 2010, Par 1-4).

In part of their culture, the Aztecs maintained their activities of fishing, hunting, garden techniques, and gathering. The rivers in the valley were rich in fish, shrimp, insects, tadpoles, and pasta. There were those who settled near the ocean and they ate crabs, fish, turtles, and fish. This means that water was the main source of their livelihoods. They hunted animals such a rabbits, armadillos, snakes, pumas, coyotes, and deer. In addition, they hunted the wild turkey. The community gathered crops such as cocoa, bananas, pumpkins, squash, beans, tobacco, chili, onions, green tomatoes, red tomatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, and vanilla. Later, they began warring with other tribes and they conquered them. The Aztecs allowed the tribes that they conquered to maintain their government and religion but the tribes were supposed to provide the Aztecs with textiles, food, pottery, and other items that they required (Native Web, 1995, Par 2-4).
The Aztec people spoke Nahauatl Language but did not have a written language. They however had no written records. Instead, they used varieties of hieroglyphic paintings and the methods of direct representation as ways of keeping their records.

The first contact of the Aztec empire with the Spanish conquest was during the reign of Ahuitzotl from 1486 to1502. The Spaniards and their allies became very dangerous to the people of Aztec. Hostilities developed, leading to the massacre of the Aztec main temple and the death of their leader, Montezuma II. On July 1, the Spaniards fled the town, leading to an episode which they referred to as The Sad Night. The Aztec society was helped by the native allies to fight the Spaniards and in August 13, the battle ended. They conquered but due to the poor leadership that prevailed,  the falling of the empire was witnessed. Despite the empires declination, their culture still remained intact. This led to positive development of the Aztec culture because the Spaniard presence did not affect their way of life.

Today, many traditional groups of Mexican Americans can trace their origin from the time of Aztec tradition. They are well known today for human sacrifices. During the special events, a slave was sacrificed to honor the gods and to regulate the human existence (Anguilar-Moreno 131).

In conclusion, I found out that Nahuatl language which is the traditional language for the Aztec is being spoken by 1.5 million people. In Mexico City, most of the buildings and streets have Nahuatl names. This means that the Aztec old days are still respected up to now.

This paper draws on the view that migration has played an important role in the culture and history of the Haitian society. This has been characteristic of the settlement patterns through slave rebellion, therefore making Haiti the first black republic in the Caribbean. To understand the role of migration in this light, it is significant to note that since 1980, Haiti has seen its population increasing tremendously a factor that has been characterized by urbanization that favored migration of the citizens of Haiti from Ti Rivye and then to Port-au-Prince. The reason behind this migration was pegged on the land fragmentation as well as the economic and social transformation. As a result, the cultural aspect of the Haitian society disintegrated, leading many Haitians to migrate to where they felt they would eke a living. Accordingly, an emergence of the politically significant but unstable middle class that composed of the blacks emerged and continued to shape the Haitian society that we have today (Richman 56-57). The emergence of the black middle class in the Haiti was composite of both the traditional elites and peasantry.

Migration in Haiti
To understand the role and impact of migration on the culture and society of Haiti, it is prudent to understand the factors that contributed to migration. Essentially, migration as well as the intrusion of foreign mission introduced newer forms of relationships in Haiti a factor that marked its multifaceted culture. Arguably, the legacy of slavery and the French colonization in Haiti promoted the phenomenon of migration that finally left a lasting impact on the culture of Haiti. Richman presumes that the marked dual cultural identity of Haiti is typified by peasantry life, Creole language, voodoo, traditional marriages and folk religion (83-85). With the introduction of the middle class as a result of migration, certain factors of Haiti cultural heritage have continually changed.

Haitian Society and its Culture
The population of Haiti has an increasing growth rate in rural areas than urban areas. King articulates that migration is the major reason behind this upsurge in population. Significantly, people in rural areas continually moved in the 1980s there was a reported increasing number of Haitians who migrated from rural areas to cities (243-245). Accordingly, Palmie further observes that the beginning of the 20th century saw the Dominican Republic registering temporary as well as permanent migrants from Haiti. This form of migration largely changed how Haitians behaved because their social and cultural orientation shifted towards poverty as most of them took up menial jobs such as cutting canes in a bid to earn a living (121-123). As a result, the infusion of capital was equally evident in the Haitian society.

The social structure of the Haitian society changed considerably following the impact of immigration. It is plausible to argue that the extermination of the native Haiti population was a concept that was favored by the policies and practices of slavery. Arguably, as the government officials sought to control every part of the Haitian population, the society of Haiti was structured to reflect the intentions of the ruling class and as such, the production of wealth for the rulers and investors paved way for migration to cities an element that provided labor and human capital (Palmie 177-179). For instance, the three-tier social structure typified by the white elites as the upper class, the freedmen as the middle class and the slaves as the lower class was an invention of the colonial master. This element of social class in Haiti propagated fear and discontent among the freedmen both in light of politically and economic potential. The resulting experience involved conflict between the migrants and the natives.

As a result of the social structure, Richman asserts that the ordinary Haitian was subjected to harsh living conditions, work conditions, and death of the slaves, a factor that led to slave rebellion. Essentially, the revolution of Haiti led to the changing of the social structure following the elimination of the ruling class, which was composite of the white population. Accordingly, Mullato leader designed a social structure based on the provision of free labor in the plantation (311-315). King further explains that this system worked for a short time. In other words, migration assembled forces of the people against the oppressive leadership through a continued revolution that saw the newer upper class controlling industrial activities that were urban based. As such, it is evident that more Haitians in the rural areas were attracted to the life in urban cities and moved there in a bid to benefit from the economic power behind industrial activities.

In addition, Palmie contends that the traditional concepts of birth, marriage, voodoo and economic activities declined as a result of migration, giving room for the modernization and concepts of urban thinking. At around the 19th century, it is evident that the ruling class which was composite of both the military as well as the elite groups led to a scenario of inheritance of political powers (278-281). Arguably, the birth of an individual unquestionably determined the social position of the person. The cultural values became a concept of shared values and these fostered the solidarity of class. It is important to note that these urban-based activities led to the emergence of a middle class that, although small, was politically significant. According to Palmie, social mobility in Haiti increased but the peasantry life was not included in national issues. As those who remained in rural areas experienced economic hardships, they were motivated to migrate to urban cities in search of a decent standard of living, a factor that increased the urban lower class (105-107).

As a result of migration, the traditional elites continued to hold key positions in real estate, trade and industry. This was determined by a single parameter of a thorough knowledge of cultural enhancement for one to claim an elite membership. However, immigration continued to affect ones conceptualization as characterized by the introduction of the English, Arabic, German and Danish names to the customary French surnames that characterized the Mullato elites (Palmie 156-158).

It is of essence to claim that migration positioned Haiti to look at people s social class in terms of ethnicity. For example, the ethnic groups became categorical as they were viewed in light of minority and majority. Arabs, who, following the urbanization and trade activities, immigrated to Haiti, engendered Haitian s hostility but their presence, although a minority group, brought in a new face in the social and cultural orientation of the Haitian society.

Migration factored in the adoption of Creole language as a result of the intermarriage between the Haitian elite as well as through the integration in the aspects of culture and socialization. In addition, the mulatto elite continued to thwart the political operations of the Haiti. Although this formed a cultural insecurity, class solidarity, traditions and identity became weak paving way for literacy and upward mobility as symbols of higher status. As such the lifestyles of the upper and middle class was the priority of the rural peasantry and this factor represented the concept of social eminence as well as prejudice. With regard to this, traditional cultural aspects diminished among the middle class Haitian (Palmie, 234-238).

Entirely, migration brought in an element of strata within the peasantry group. Richman explains that those peasants who worked as tenants had some hope of inheriting the plots they worked in and thus, they identified themselves differently from other peasants (54-58). Ideally, wealthier peasants who managed to maintain their economic positions as a result of local politics as well as control of capital. With regard to this, a strong sense of identity was characterized by these peasants because they saw themselves as cultivators of land.

Gender Roles and Family Life in Traditional Haiti
The cultural perspective of gender roles and family life in Haiti changed a great deal as a result of migration. Initially, both men and women engaged in complementary roles where heavy work as well as farming was a preserve of men, while women delved in domestic chores such as harvesting and weeding (King, 172-174). Consequently, the women of Haiti participated in the labor forces as the culture of Haiti valued the contribution of everyone to the economy. In addition, both men and women valued children and worked tirelessly towards upbringing, an element that is not common in many Latin American countries. As a result, it is evident that rearing children was a question of both husband and wife especially of the fact that both parents ensured that all children received inheritance on equal levels.

Family life was characterized by traditional norms of marriage with common religious and civil marriages. However, in the present Haitian society, Christian marriages have set into play with divorce which was once a rare phenomenon, being an acceptable component of marriage (Palmie 34-37). In addition, gender roles consequently changed with women and men being able to do any activity so long as they achieve their economic gain. With regard to this, there are many rights that have been structured to advocate women and issues of equity. Overall, migration due to political and foreign policies have entirely altered the cultural belief in family life, a component of culture in the society of Haiti.

Language in Haiti
Traditionally, the languages that were spoken in Haiti were French and Creole. These two languages had a social interplay as Creole formed the indigenous language while French functions as its official language. According to Palmie, Creole was evident in the monolingual majority while the ruling elite became bilingual (117-119). Significantly, language complicated the relationship between the masses and the elite and as all Haitian took pride in using Creole as their national language, migration led to controversial debate as to whether Creole had any rule to be taken as a national language. Richman points out that attitudes towards Creole began to change following the urban economic activities coupled by the investments of Arabs, Germans and Englishmen (17-19). As a result, English was favored against French as the language of business therefore underscoring the point that migration, which paved way to immigration as well emigration, affects the cultural orientation and the society of Haiti. The interplay between migration and cultural relationship around gender roles and family setups is facilitated through the cultural influence of Africans and French. This paradigm shift in cultural shift leans towards the modernization of African heritage.

Rural Haiti
Migration has extensively facilitated a situation where majority of Haitians live in rural areas. This part of Haiti is under the influence of the heritage of Africa as a result of the experience of slavery. Richman points out these aspects continually shape how the Haitian society defines its familial and marital relationships as well as economic activities. Migration of the Afro-Haitians, who are mainly Mullatoes from the rural areas, has led to the present modification of the traditional cultural practices and extensively, the elimination of others (178-181).

In addition, the migration of Haitians has maintained their religious outlook. King argues that religion through aesthetic and ritual practices had their Haitian myths of voodoo entirely changed. Arguably, Haitians, as a result of migration, have welcomed the modern aspect of morality which anchors their spiritual connection (59-61). For example, modernity has presented a new form of religious connection which includes the use of video tapes to basically enlarge their spiritual domain. This is characteristic of how modern spiritual orientation such as sacred songs are recorded electronically and shared among communities for the sake of worshiping God. In essence, concepts of power, social organizations, rituals and family setups have widely been altered, a factor that is attributed to migration (Richman, 14-18).

The migration in Haiti from TI Rivye, dubbed as dramatic exodus, largely influenced the Haitian peasantry outlook which gradually changed to the modern Haitian proletariat. As most Haitians were so concerned with economic prowess, they left their rural homes to look for economic fortunes. However, as migration extended, the concept of indigenous religion was brought into focus thus influencing the interaction of Haitians with iwa and pwen. These encompassed the anthropomorphic spirits that were inherited as a result of family lineage. On the other hand, pwen borders the precincts of relations and situations which are characteristic in marking the religious performance. As these interactions expanded, the religious perspective changed to suit the demands that life pressed onto Haitians (Richman, 133-136).

Conclusion
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that migration in Haiti was a significant period of change in the society of Haiti as it played a significant role in changing the cultural orientation of the Haitian people as well as the larger society of Haiti. From the pre-colonial days, the French and Haitian revolution which led to several changes in the culture and society of Haiti has changed its social structure, family, gender roles, education, economics and religion. It is evident that by the 20th century, migration through inevitable forces of nature had brought to fore a high degree of physical mobility inspired by economic and social orientations, which up to date, grounds what and how the republic of Haiti has transformed. Through the inspiration of decent living and in a bid to improve the standards of living, the Haitians in the rural areas who were faced with harsh economic and work conditions opted to migrate to the urban cities where they mingled with French, Arabs, English and Germans. They therefore worked in plantations, a factor that distinctively defined their social status. Market with great political activities, social stratification came into play. These pursued a common goal of social as well as economic advancement, leading to a distinct network of rural and urban groups of Haitians, their attitudes and relationships with their ruling elites.

According to Chasteen (2006), Latin America can be regarded as either having a single history or not. The twenty countries can be said to have a common history due to them being similar in more ways than one. When looked at from a different perspective, they can also be said not to have a single history because these countries history cannot be accurately and fully described in one story. This article will explore Chasteens views with the aim of establishing if his views are accurate.

Jose Maria Caicedo was the first one to refer to this geographical region as Latin America The introduction of this name encompassed both the Spaniards and French speaking people occupying the lands. Latin America is comprised of countries found in the south of the United States of America and maybe sub-divided into regions namely Carribean, Central America, South America and North America. Latin America is the 4th largest Continent on planet Earth. History shows that the entry and exit of regions into and out of
Latin America was a gradual transition that cannot be traced to specific dates.

One common feature of these countries is the European conquest and colonization. Christopher Columbus arrived there in 1942, consequently opening them up to the world. Eventually, the region was taken over by European powers comprised of Portugal and Spain, who introduced diseases such as small pox in order to weaken the indigenous populace. Many died, while the survivors were subjected to forced labor. Eventually independence was attained between 1810 and 1830 through a string of freedom fighters.

The Latin American republics also share a religion because during the period of colonization, the Roman Catholic Church was introduced in order to override the traditions of the natives. It became the major economic  political power and the authorized religion of the land.

Most of the republics of Latin America, spoke the languages of romance, which were French and Spanish, with Spanish being the main dialect. Another language that was spoken is Portuguese. These dialects existed because these countries were colonized by Spain and Portugal. Some countries e.g. Guyane speak English, Suriname speaks Dutch and Brasilia speaks Portuguese. The Latin American nations possess a rich ethnicity in the make-up of the populace. We find the Amerindians who are the Aborigins, then there are the Blacks who were slaves brought in from Africa, the Asians who were traders from Japan and China, Mestizos were as a result of inter-marriage between the Europeans and the Amerindians and the Mulattoes from marriages between Europeans and Africans. The Whites were composed of the Spaniards and French and last but not least were the Zambos who came up as a result of mixed marriages between Africans and Amerindians.
Another common trait was the signing of the International Human Rights Treaties by the 20 Latin American countries and the 28 Post Communist countries. The treaties addressed civil liberties, freedoms of speech, assembly, association, movement, religion and the independence of courts. Civil liberties of Latin American countries had been smothered by the Communist rule, which eventually collapsed between 1989 and 1991.

Human rights and democratic self governance rights significantly improved across the countries after the fall of communism. This improvement was triggered by the increased shining of the spotlight on conduction of open and just elections. Personal integrity privileges remained explosive as they were for the most part affected by the struggle involving government and guerrilla movements. Crowley (1993) says the rights experienced a stunted improvement but nevertheless started showing progress as from 1991.

The Latin American countries went through a state of dependency and neo-colonialism. Grandin (2004) wrote that in order to safeguard its economic interest, USA provided fiscal, military and moral support to the non-independent countries. Liberalization was initiated from 1989, though the Soviet and Yugoslav conflict continuously hindered growth. However, progress could by 1993 because there were more liberal and semi-liberal countries, and an increased show of respect for individuals rights to own property.

In conclusion, it can be said that not only are the Latin American countries unified geographically, but across the cultural, economic, religious and historical background. Their masters without knowing united these countries, creating a wealthy people, empowered to transform their continent into a resourceful and culturally rich continent.

Research Proposal

For my research, Id like to study the Landless Workers Movement (MST) of Brazil and how this group has impacted the land reforms and agriculture policies in the country.  I looked at the website of this organization and found that the group, as of May 27th, 2010, is switching its goal toward sustainable farming and agriculture. Due to this change, my propose thesis is In light of the MSTs future goals and past campaigns, a new struggle for more sustainable agriculture will not meet the same success as they have met in the past.
I would start by providing a brief historical overview of the group why they started, what their original goals were, why this group is significant for study as opposed to other groups in Brazil or cases in other countries. The new goal of sustainable agriculture differs from the previous goals of the MST, meaning that new strategies for activism need to be formed. This group has been very successful in the past with its previous goal of securing farmland for its members. I wonder about the odds of continuing this success and how the group will pursue this new goal.

Also, the group has over 1.5 million members. I would like to investigate what these goal changes would mean for the members who joined to help to achieve the original goals. Theres no guarantee that these new goals will be popular with such a large member base, especially since many of these members already have the land they sought. Will this cause members to leave, the group to break a part, or maybe grow as the new goal could attract a different member base

I would then conclude with a quick summarization of my main points and then offer final thoughts on the issue and the future of MST.

It should be noted that Latin American Literature of the 20th century demonstrates perfect connection between the generations the Ancient and the Modern. The most noticeable literary figures use the rich history, mythology and spiritual bound between the generations in order to demonstrate strong connection of their nation with the events and people who lived in the Ancient times and differed a lot from the present day realities. Many authors want to reveal that the spirit of the Ancient tribes living on the territory of contemporary Latin America is the most valuable heritage of contemporary people, connecting them with the past. It goes without saying that literary creations of the outstanding authors, living in the Latin American region, reflect the intentions to show deep connection of the different nations with their Ancient past, celebrating the unity of Ancient and Modern traditions within the nations of independent Latin American Countries. It is essential that the question of the Ancient heritage in Latin America is among the quite acute. That is why it is not surprising that it has found reflection in the outstanding 20th century novels, which take a significant place in Latin American Literary Heritage. They are The Storyteller by Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, written in 1987 and Where the Air is Clear by outstanding Mexican writer Carlos Fuentes, released in far 1958. Despite the significant difference in genre and plot structure these novels are united under the one theme. They reveal the close connection of the modern Latin American society with the past. The core idea of this research is to reveal this connection between the ancient and the modern within the pages of these books.

Where the Air is Clear by Carlos Fuentes and close connection of the Modern world to the Ancient heritage.
Where the Air Is Clear is the first novel, written by Carlos Fuentes and from the very beginning the author raised quite burning questions and important themes. One novels heroes, Ixca Cienfuegos, plays quite a significant cultural role in the novel, which is written in the form of character sketches collection in the Mexico City. Ixca Cienfuegos is connecting all separate parts within the pages of a book. Masterful combination of different techniques let the author represent the dynamical development of Mexico after the revolution at the time period of nearly a decade, 1940s and 1950s.

It should be noted that the key figures of the novel is Mexico City itself and the author reveals cultural peculiarities describing the life of the city. The author takes the reader into the fascinating trip around the streets of Mexico City, dealing with some pages of its history. The novel could not be regarded as the typical analysis of the city dwellers the author masterfully notes all the drawbacks incisively describing Mexico City inhabitants. He shows Federico Robles, who is a banker Norma Robles, a  social climber Ovando family, who was rich before the revolution, but lost everything after Rodrigo Polo, Mexican writer, who suffered during the revolution as his father was executed, Amerindian Gladys, who sells her body and certainly Ixca Cienfuegos, who is real critic and observer of the whole system.

Carlos Fuentes, as a representative of Magic realism, could not avoid showing the reader the question of solitude and identity of Mexico, its loss in the labyrinth, understanding that there in no other country in Latin America, which obsessively seeks for it personal identity, returning again to its history and moving ahead. The country feels itself lost between the motherland (with all its cultural traditions and peculiarities) and the adopted land. With the help of different literary elements such as  disjointed writing style,  flashback, the stream of consciousness, non-chronological recount of events and alternation of narration forms, the author masterfully performs the surreal atmosphere of the constant search, which is one f the main themes of the novel. To find the correlation between the present and the past is very difficult for the main heroes of the novel and each of them touches the question of identity. It should be noted that the most surreal element of the novel is Mexico City, which is depicted as one of the core figures of the novel this makes Where the Air is Clear outstanding from the other novels dealing with the question of national identity. The book itself essentially represents the quest for national identity in Mexico in the post  revolutionary times.

Placing Mexico City as a central Figure, Carlos Fuentes shift the role of all the human characters to the background due to the fact that their lives and past experience correlate  with the primary intention of definition the culture and history of the country. The question if perfectly revealed through the confrontation of the present day reality with its past, and the reader understand that this conflict has been lasting for already many years. The following quote perfectly illustrates the confrontation But does such a thing as original blood exist No every pure element grows and is consumed in its own purity, does not develop the original is the impure, the mixed, the mulatto and the mestizo, as I am, as all of Mexico is. Which is to say, originality supposes a mixing, a creation, not a purity previous to our experience. Rather than born original, we come to be original origin is creation. Mexico must find her origin by looking ahead, not behind (Carlos Fuentes, 1958, p. 44). The present day reality of the country could hardly correlate to the past of the Aztec Empire, its beliefs, hopes and cultural peculiarities. But the author makes a stress not on the confrontation and conflict he tries to reveal that the Mexican identity and cultural peculiarity is the mixture of two different, even opposite cultures. The European Tradition and the Indian tradition the history of Mexico, unites people of different origins, race and thought and every hero of the novel proves that, as every character is a certain emblem of different Mexican aspects, and if we integrate the histories of the heroes, we could reveal that it is the actual Mexican identity, in the unique integration of many different cultures. The story that seemed to be a disconnected is a surrealist approach of the Author, who makes a stress on the division of Mexico and its unwillingness to perceive itself as interracial community. Such surrealist technique of writing let Carlos Fuentes to show the reader his personal and vividly portrayal vision of Mexico a confronting country with unclear identity

It goes without saying that sharp division between the social classes in the 1950-s Mexico adds a lot in the constant quest for the national identity. If we look back in the history of Mexico, the Aztecs were on the top of social ranking, under the time of Aztec empire everything was subjected to their will the situation in Where the Air Is Clear is quite opposite the indigenous Indians are on the lowest place in the Mexican society (good illustration is prostitute Gladys). Another conflict is also observed. The new and the past governing classes also involved in the confrontation. The impoverished Ovando family is contrasted to Nora Robles, the contemporary representative of the upper Mexican Classes. One of the most powerful scenes is her meeting with Lorenza de Ovando, bitter aristocratic matriarch. Here we could observe allusion on the Modern Mexico and the Past one. The country, which rejects her Aztec past, its Gods, myths and cultural traditions
The Storyteller  Mario Vargas Llosa, and close connection of the Modern world to the Ancient heritage.
Mario Vargas Llosa tells us a story of two college friends the anonymous narrator (some critics consider that the author introduced himself) and his friend, Saul Zurantas, a Peruvian Jew. They both very interesting time at college, studying ethnography, they had a number of philosophical disputes. As it usually happens the friendship was erased after graduation. The narrator was intended to find a scholarship and continue his studies abroad and his friend was seen at college seldom and finally disappeared. It was told that he either immigrated to Israel or lost somewhere in the jungle in the east of Peru within the Machiguenga people. The narrator graduated and started his career as a member of the field theme from the Institute of linguistics and further he became television documentaries producer.

During this time he did not stop attempts to contact his lost friend Saul, intended to learn more about the cultural peculiarities of Machiguenga tribes, but unfortunately he failed. Only in the very beginning appears a haunting image, which narrator had at a Florentine Art Gallery. He recognized Saul Zurantas as the Machiguengas tribal storyteller on the photographs. The book unites and compares the chapters told by the narrator and the ones telling the reader of the Peruvian Indian Mythology. It makes the reading rich on the contrast. One chapter describes the discussion between Saul Zurantas and the narrator what impact provided the missionaries alongside with the business interest from the west on the unique nature of the Machiguenga tribes and culture. This chapter is prolonged with the national folklore telling about the spirit world, the animals and elements. It would be hard to reveal whether it is the voice of Saul Zurantas or the Machiguenga storyteller tells about mystical connection between the nature and the people. These two viewpoints thought provoking dialogues contrasted to the national tales is revealing the importance of keeping the unique cultures that are under the threat of westernization and loss of their identity. Saul Zurantas, of Jewish origin understands this more than the local Peruvians, that is why he is the storyteller, the one who keeps the connection between the generations, collecting the story of the legendary past.

The book is not an easy to read as it has deep philosophical background. It provided a number of burning questions such as the investigation of the other cultures by the anthropologists and how these people, living outside of the civilized world could fit to the major society. The whole question civilization is raised within the pages of the book, the question of the lost heritage, where social anthropologist Saul Zurantas took the place of the story teller, to preserve unique Machiguenga culture, which is located in the depth of the rainforests of the Amazon River. Who is purer or happier because hes renounced his destiny The storyteller asked when he walked in the jungle with the Machiguengatribes, who should constantly roam to keep their obligation to the gods and keep save the Earth and the Sky and the Stars. Nobody, the storyteller replied. Wed best be what we are. The one who gives up fulfilling his own obligation so as to fulfill that of another will lose his soul (Mario Vargas Llosa, 1987). It is deeply spiritual novel, which deals about strong connection between the people of different times. The author tells us that the old tales could not leave anyone indifferent, as they are the part of the history and the part of the culture.

Conclusion
In the end I would like to make a stress on the fact that both authors reveal strong importance of the past for the present day world. It is important to keep the connection between the generations, to preserve cultural identity and the past could not be neither changes nor forgotten, as national identity of the country strongly deals with the question of the cultural heritage of the previous cultures. The Ancient Maya Tribes and Ancient Aztec have left rich cultural heritage for the Mexicans and the Peruvians and present day people should care and protect this heritage, understanding that the role of the Ancient in our present day Modern is really significant.

In her book, Junia Ferreira Furtado comes up with a fascinating research on the study of the world of a freed woman of color from a small town in Brazil where former slaves, itinerant merchants, concubines and Portuguese administrators interact across cultural and social lines. She represents Chica da Silva who is a child from a mixed marriage between a Brazilian military noblemen and an African slave from Costa da Mina and Chica da Silva won her freedom by using her marital and social strategies. The story of Chica da Silver is neither  merely a personal  story of an individual woman nor the social history of a colonial Brzilian town but it rather provides a particular historic perspective of a womans cultural universe in which she inhabited, her agency, and those myths that were created around her in each given century. Chica da Silver for example came to symbolize an example of both the stereotype of sensuality and licentiousness, and racial democracy which was always attributed to the mullato and black female according to a popular Brazilian imagination.
According to Junia Ferreira Furtados myth of Chica da Silva is that marriage and concubinage between the white male and black female during the colonial Brazilian society was a means that was found by the slaves as the best way of changing their social position in the society and to escape from racial stigma that the slaves were attached to. In Brazil, Chica was used as a symbol for racial democracy. Many scholars have also recorded that she used Miscegenation to achieve the social status she desired as it has been happening with other African Brazilian slaves of the time.

The marriage between Chica da Silva and Joao Fernandes was regarded as a scandal according to the colonial society. This was due to the fact that the black Brazilian women of this time saw sex as the best way to facilitate access to concubinage and freedom while the white men offered advantages to these black women because once they were free, they could reduce the stigma of color and the slavery for both of them and their descendants. This is what Chica da Silva used and this made her a very successful woman of black origin. Chica da Silva was successful in fitting in to the white society and brought up her children and family. It is reported from the book that she also had slaves

Life was very poor for the African slave in eighteenth century Minas Gerais. They worked under very hard conditions and there was no freedom. Slaves were segregated from the white and were not allowed to mix. In the building of Estrada real, many people died as the road construction required a lot of labor. The slaves were regarded as the property of their masters who owned mines from where some of the slaves worked ( Laird, 56). There was color segregation and the black slaves were not allowed to mix with the whites. There were places designated for the whites where black slaves were not allowed.

Later in the century, some black slave women started marrying whites and they started getting some privileges with their children. Those from these mixed marriages started seeing themselves as they were becoming whiter than their counterparts and this led to more segregation among the blacks and those from mixed marriages.

Slaves worked for very little money and in some instances, slaves were not paid at all and were only use the produce from the firms as source of food. Some slave owners lowly valued their slaves while others were relatively well treated by their masters. It is a fact that slaves were roughed up to accomplish their jobs through canning and all sorts of abuses. This highly affected the self esteem of these slaves who were handled like animals.

Providing useful insights about Peru as a country, nation, and society were the main facets of the lecture provided by Ambassador Marcela Lopez Bravo. The presentations showcased new perspectives in allowing viewers to recognize the evolution of Peru from its historical perspective and the different resources that makes it unique from other countries in Latin America. By providing these inputs accordingly, Ambassador Bravo provided increased not only the ideas of participants in the lecture but also helped each one identify the corresponding themes that have shaped the country for what it is today.

The first part of the lecture revolved around the geographical features of the country. In here, the speaker provided four (4) specific and important aspects that shape Perus national borders. At the same time, considerable attention was provided to justify its purpose and relevance towards specific functions and the ability to outline its value within the development of life, culture, and society within the region. Here, the four examples include (1) the coast, (2) Andean Mountains, (3) Amazon Jungle, and (4) the Rio Abiseo.

Given these diversity of geographical features, Ambassador Bravo argued its relevance and value in the formulation and creation of culture and life within Peru. It is in here that she tried to outline various histories related to each of these features and highlighted how man have survived through these specific obstacles and influenced the formulation and development of Perus identity and culture. All these proved to be beneficial in the next aspect of the lecture wherein she discussed the different cultures and groups that existed within Perus geographic borders.

During this part of the lecture, Ambassador Bravo highlighted a chronological elaboration of the different inhabitants of Peru as early as 10,560 BC illustrated not only its rich land and topography but also its capacity to sustain life. In here, she provided specific examples of these early cultures from Chavin, Mochica, Paracas, Wari, and Chimu. Under each groups, she highlighted specific contributions to Perus culture and underlined key principles as it relates to their belief system, religion, way of life, social classifications, etc. All these serve its purpose of redefining and grasping familiar concepts that equally shape identity building and the formulation of artifacts, temples, and sacred sites all distinct with one another.

As the lecture progressed, cultures during the pre-Incan period were also introduced by the speaker. Here she depicted numerous contributions from the field of metallurgy towards the formulation of architectural wonders (e.g. Nazca Lines). All these serve to complement the existence of one of the most celebrated civilizations of Latin America  the Incas. It was through this that Ambassador Bravo took pride in these civilization contributions not only in unifying the different cultures and tribes within Peru but also its ability to establish its own specific order and reality that was depicted in their work. Through their development until the destruction of Francisco Pizarros army, the Incas captivated the new world by offering something unique and distinct towards their counterparts during the period.

The last part of the seminar referred to the todays modern Peru and how it continuously adapts to new trends shaping Latin American and the rest of the world. In particular, Ambassador Bravo outlines specific measures and development from the countrys independence from Spain towards the formation of a Republic. In particular, it outlines specific areas where people engage to trade and commerce. At the same time, it also addresses particular strengths and weaknesses of Perus economy. Despite the relatively modern stance of Peruvian society nowadays, Ambassador Bravo argues that there still remains traces of culture and history embedded within principles and values that equally shape and influence the value of how people respond and make decisions.