Latin-American Studies

    The Elian Gonzalez affair refers to a controversial custody case of a Cuban boy known as Elian Gonzalez. Elian had managed to survive a boat accident which resulted to the death of his mother as they attempted to get into the US illegally in November 1999. This controversial case brought to light concerns about the US immigration and family laws, the US-Cuba relations the Cuban American community in relation to economic, social and political issues in Cuba (Elian Gonzlez Biography, 1993). Elian Gonzalez was traveling with his mother to the US but the failure of the boat and poor weather conditions led to the capsizing of the boat. The accident left all the passengers dead except Elian and two other survivors. After Elian and the survivors were rescued, the US Immigration and Naturalization Service (INC) placed the boy under the care of his paternal relatives who lived in Miami. Although the relatives sought to keep Elian in the US, Elians father, Juan Miguel Gonzalez, demanded that the boy return back to Cuba. This resulted to a custody row that had the father and the paternal relatives compete for the custody of the boy. The Cuban American community, the media, political leaders and some US bureaucracies got entangled in the row. After heated debates in the political circle and a legal battle in the early part of 2000, Elian returned to Cuba with his father. This paper will discuss the Elian Gonzalez affair and how politics, the media, US bureaucracies, the US judiciary and the Cuban American community got entangled in the affair.

The custody battle concerning Elian Gonzalez dominated the United States and Cuban media during the early months of 2000.Elian Gonzalez, a five-year old Cuban boy had left Cuba in company of his mother and his mothers boyfriend for the US in search for a better life. Illegal immigration of Cubans into the US was promoted by the   desire to seek a better life in the US. As compared to Cuba, the US seemed to provide the immigrants with better social and economic conditions. The Cuban economy had been experiencing problems since 1980s due to the US embargo that it imposed on Cuba in efforts to pressure Castros administration to embrace democracy and contain communism (Eire, 2003).To the US, Cuba had proved to be a threat to US security during the Cuban Missile crisis. As a result many Cubans, the US presented them with new opportunities to improve their lives and provide their children with a good life. This was no exception for Elians mother who took the risk of traveling in a small   boat to get to the US. Although many illegal immigrants managed to get to the US  without being apprehended, other who were arrested were deported back to Cuba .It is believed that the failure of the  boat engine  coupled with poor weather led to the capsizing of the boat.Unfortunately,Elians mother and other  passengers  drowned to death except for  Elian and two other survivors who  managed to float at sea on an inner tube for hours before they  were rescued by fishermen who handed them over to the US Immigration  and Naturalization Service officials(INS).The rescue of the Elian  and the two survivors received the attention of the media, marking the beginning of the entanglement of the media in Elians affair. After receiving treatment in the hospital, Elian was handed over to Lazaro Gonzalez, his paternal great uncle who lived in Miami. Together with the other relatives, Lazaro expressed their interest in keeping the boy in the US.However, this was rejected by Elians father and relatives back in Cuba. The events that unfolded after this attracted great attention of the media on the case. For about six months, the custody row became the focus of the US as well as Cuban mass media. Reports and debates in the media focused on the political and social issues that surrounded the matter.

Although the attention of the media on the case began with the rescue of the boy from the sea, the great attention of the media on the case during the early period of 2000 was increased by the involvement of the US and Cuban governments, political personalities as well as the Cuban American community in the affair. The public sympathized with Elian who had been rescued clinging onto an inner tube off the coast of Ft.Lauderdale in Florida on November 25, 1999.As the custody battle between Elians father and relatives in Miami continued, various members of the public differed on which was the best option for the well being of the boy. While some considered it logical to have the mothers dream of providing Elian with a good life in US by having the boy live with his relatives in Miami, others were convinced that it was good for the boy to live with his biological father. However, the sending of a note by the Cuban government to a US mission in Havana to request for Elians return to Cuba attracted the attention of the media and the public in the case. Elian became the centre of debate in the public and the Cuban American community especially in South Florida. The affair on the surface was about family and immigration laws in the US while beneath the surface, it became a political crisis between the US and Cuban governments. In relation to law, the affair triggered   heated debates on how the case would have been handled effectively. For instance, the question of whether Elian should stay in the US or return back to Cuba became the issue of discussion in the public. The disagreement between Elians father and his relatives in Miami made the case even more interesting. Although Juan Miguel Gonzalez, Elians father, made a request that Elian return to Cuba, the request was met with great resistance from his relatives who were taking care of Elian. Together with a legal team and some influential members of the community, the relatives on January 7 filed a request for political asylum of Elian. The family wanted Lazaro Gonzalez, one of   Elians relatives living in Miami to be granted custody as the boys guardian. This disagreement made it necessary for the media to continue focusing on the case.

The legal wrangling that was witnessed about the Elian Gonzalez case involved numerous bureaucracies within the US government. The bureaucracies included the Immigration and Naturalization service, the State Department and the Attorney Generals Office. These government agencies were involved in the case in efforts to resolve the custody issue .For example, because the Elian issue was transformed into legal dispute, Elians relatives living in Cuba intervened in the matter. For instance, Elians grandmother and mother in two different cases flew from Havana to the US in efforts to have Elian returned back to Cuba. Disagreements between Elians father and relatives living in Miami led to negotiations with the Attorney General which were unsuccessful. Although the 11th Circuit Court judge had granted emergency custody of the boy to Lazaro Gonzalez, the rejection of a family court jurisdiction by Attorney General Janet Reno in January 12 made it necessary for the Gonzalez family living in Miami to file a case in the federal court.

After the US government in January 28 requested for the dismissal of Elian relatives federal lawsuit, the US District judge on March 9 dismissed the political asylum lawsuit. As a result, Julian Gonzalez meeting with the Attorney General Janet Reno in April 7, 2000 resulted to an announcement that the US officials would transfer the custody of the boy to his father. Despite the fact that in April 19 the 11th US Circuit Court of Appeal blocked Elians return to Cuba after granting a request that had been filled by his Miami relatives, Elians reunion with his father was witnessed on April 22nd after US federal agents in a pre-dawn raid seized Elian from his Miami relatives home (A Chronology of Elian Gonzalez saga, 2010). The raid was criticized by Elians Miami relatives and their supporters. Many supporters belonged to the Cuban American community in South Florida who considered it better for Elian to remain in the US rather than   return to Cuba.  On the other hand, some Americans held the opinion that Elians father should have been given custody of Elian .Eventually, Elian and his father returned back to Cuba two months later after court producers were completed. They returned home on June 28th, few hours after the US Supreme court rejected efforts by Elians Miami relatives to keep him in the US. These events indicate how the US judiciary was involved in the Elian Gonzalezs affair.

The attention of the media in the case was unprecedented and it was clear that no incident of illegal immigration had attracted such attention from the media. This is because the Elian Gonzalez affair was transformed into a morality play where the public took sides, the US- Cuba relations were affected and Cubans in Cuba and those in the US were divided. For example, the case led to emotional charge that fueled emotional reactions among citizens in Cuba and US. Public opinion polls results that focused on how the case should have been handled were presented in the media. Differences between Cubans in Cuba and those in Cuban American society was evident when Cuban Americans complained on how the issue was handled. Back in Cuba, many citizens supported the returning back of Elian in the country. While the return of Elian Gonzalez to Cuba was celebrated by huge crowds at Jose Marti International Airport, members of the Cuban American community who supported Elians relatives living in Miami criticized how the case was handled. Divisions in the American society about the affair was also witnessed when  some Americans across  the nation supported the reunification of Elian and his father while others argued that Elians stay in the US would fulfill his mothers dream of providing him with a good life in the US. For those who supported reunion of Elian and his family back in Cuba, the members of the Cuban American community showed fanaticism when they made attempts to oppose and dismiss the US law during the legal battle witnessed in relation to Elians custody.

The Elian Gonzalez case was an indication of the absence of coordination structures as well as the presence of power vacuum at the US high level decision making especially in the National Security Council. For example, the case confirmed the fragility of the bilateral relations structure. Although the Elian case seemed to be a clear cut case of parental rights and immigration policy, it became a major issue of discussion during political debates when some US politicians in Congress and those in the presidential campaign trail got involved. In addition, the Elian affair resulted to the splinter of the Cuban American right wing with the hard-line members forming the Cuba Liberty Council (CLC). The split of the leadership of the Cuban American Florida community into CLC and the CANF (Cuban American National Foundation) defined demographic change that affected their political opinion. The Cuban American National Foundation had been supported by successive US administrations for decades and was expected to exercise  virtual veto power over the US policy towards Cuba (Fernndez,2000).The departure of Elian therefore left the right-wing Cuban exiles demoralized when their goal to have him remain in the US  failed. For example, after Elian and his father left for Cuba, only a small number of protesters from the community came out to protest as compared to the large number of the protesters that had been recorded in April when the INS agents raided the Miami relatives residence to take Elian away. Politics in the US and Cuba were influenced by the huge campaigns that were coordinated and held by anti-Castro Miami-based Cuban exiles who aimed at preventing the return of the  boy back to his father in Cuba. The Elian affair was also a clear indication of how irrational and intractable the US-Cuban relationship had become and the entanglement of a young child in politics that was beyond his control has been compared to the Operation Pedro Pan (Torres, 2003).

The case exposed deep divisions among the Miami residents due to the fact that although some residents especially those from the Cuban American community protested in favor of having Elian stay in the US, others agreed that the boy had the right to return to his father in Cuba. The affair also confirmed how measures that have been put into place to improve the Cuban-American relations worsened the situation. In addition, the events that unfolded during the affair showed how the US policy toward Cuba has become vital for the interests of groups such as the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF). The organization had become an influential Cuban American and Latina lobby organization in relation to foreign policy and political issues in Cuba and the US. Established in 1981, this group of Cuban American promotes the Cuban American interests.

Elians individuality during the affair became a representation of both political and social agenda. For example, Elians story brought to the forefront issues of the US  Cuba sanction policies and immigration. The Elian predicament also shed light on perpetual issues that have existed in the history of US immigration and the immigration policy in the US that had some short comings. Furthermore, the Elians plight expressed an identity crisis of the Cuban-American community in Florida. This identity gave great importance to the Cuban American community around the family, communism, nation and religion framework. Although the custody battle of Elian was just a fair simple matter, it was transformed into a complicated matter by the presence of multinational identities and politics. The lasting effect of the Elian Gonzalez affair was that as the society develops new cultural custody landmarks, the leadership had failed to develop new social and immigration policies. In relation to economic matters, Elian Gonzalez case showed how the second generation of Cuban Americans has differed with the parents generation on economic and political issues in Cuba (Weiser, 2002).

    The Elian Gonzalez affair sparked a political battle in the US after a custody row attracted great attention from the Cuban American community, the US and the Cuban American governments, US bureaucracies and immigration and family law policy makers. The events that unfolded following the rescue of Elian Gonzalez ignited a custody crisis that ended with Elian Gonzalez return to Cuba with his father. During this time period, many Cubans were moving into the US illegally in search of a better life. The Cuban American community also got involved in the case, with many protesters demanding that the boy remain in the US while other citizens across America supported the granting of custody to the father .Although the Miami relatives of Elian and their supporters considered the case to have been handled poorly, others supported the granting of child custody to Elian Gonzalezs father.

We have to be more Mexican than the Mexicans and more American than the Americans, both at the same time. Its exhausting 
Abraham Quintanilla from Selena

    Perhaps to the surprise of many Americans, it is well documented in history that Latinos have done a lot for the United States. Looking back to the very beginning, the first successful colony in the United States was St. Augustine founded by the Spanish in 1565. This means that besides the Native Americans, Latinos have been in the United States longer than any other ethnic group. So why do so many non-Latino Americans treat Latinos as second class citizens

    Prejudice against Latinos is nothing new in the United States. Hispanophobia, the fear of Hispanic  or Latino people, has been documented since the exploration age. Perhaps due to the successes of Spain, Northern European countries began to speak poorly about the country and the places discovered and ruled by the Spanish. Once the United States of America was formed by English speaking men, the discrimination against Latinos in America began. Florida was give to the United States by Spain, with the promise that the United States would not claim any part of Texas. At the same time as the founding of St. Augustine, California was explored by the Spanish. A number of famous explorers landed on the west coast, and eventually the area was settled as a part of Mexico.

    When the United States won the war against Mexico in 1848, half of Mexico became part of the United States. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed promising to give Mexicans in the United States land owning rights after one year (Robinson, 2006). This ruling was ignored and many Mexican Americans were forced off their land. In New Mexico and Texas, this led to many Latinos attempting to fight for their land with acts of violence. During the California Gold Rush, more non-Latinos entered the area and pressured Latinos to live and work elsewhere. From 1848 to 1860, at least 163 Mexicans were lynched in California.

    As the years went by, discrimination against Latinos continued. In the 1930s Mexican Americans were encouraged to go back to Mexico. 500,000 people were deported at this time, despite 60  of the deportees being American citizens. During World War II, white members of the military attacked Latino youths due to racial tensions. These attacks are now known as the Zoot Suit Riots, named after the popular suits worn by Latinos (Robinson, 2006).

    Currently in the United States, Latinos continue to face problems due to prejudice. Many Americans chose to ignore the Latino presence in Americas history and insist the United States is a European based nation and should remain so. Recently a controversial law was passed in the state of Arizona allowing law enforcement officials the right to question anyone suspicious of being an immigrant and demanding proof of residency on the spot. Critics are saying that this bill, SB 1070, is legalizing law enforcements rights to harass Latinos, and is the equivalent of Nazism and the yellow Stars of David worn by the Jews during World War II (Archibold, 2010). Also  along the border of the United StatesMexico border, a group of vigilantes calling themselves  The Minutemen  independently monitor the area, looking for illegal immigrants. Some have compared this group to hunters, only instead of animals, this group wants to shoot Mexicans. Others, including government officials, have praised their work (McKinley, 2009).

        Another problem that many non Latino Americans have with Latinos is the issue of increased violence. Many gangs in the United States are Latino based. People tend to join gangs when they feel like they do not belong anywhere else. Once initiated into a gang, you will be taken care of for life (Mac Donald, 2004). Someone who is far from home and living somewhere illegal may feel very isolated and either seek out a gang or be sought out by one.  Once gangs take over an area, people begin to live in fear and are not likely to bring attention to gang members. MS-13, a gang started by immigrants who escaped from the repressive regime in El Salvador, has around 10,000 members in over 33 states and is becoming well known for its intimidation habits, recently killing a former member-turned informant with a machete (Johnson, 2006).
   
    Also, Latinos are more likely to be  targets of violent behavior from non-Latinos. A Mexican immigrant was killed by four teenagers in upstate Pennsylvania in 2008. The high school seniors allegedly told the victim  ...this is America, go back to Mexico  along with ethnic slurs. The amount of crimes committed against Latinos increased by 35,  from 426 reported crimes in 2003 to 595 in 2007. Anti-immigration organizations have been formed and popular television personalities like Michael Savage and Lou Dobbs help fan the flames of fear amongst the Latino and immigrant communities. Dobbs has even go as far as saying that illegal immigrants have brought malaria, leprosy and other contagious diseases to this country. This claim was disproved by the Center for Disease Control but the damage was already done. In Seattle, some African Americans feel that because many Latino laborers do not speak English, they are easier to take advantage of and thus easier to employee. The African Americans believe that the rights of Latinos are being put before their rights and are not supportive of illegal workers receiving amnesty (Turnbull, 2006).

    Latinos in the United States do not just have to deal with external struggles they have internal difficulties as well. From extreme culture clash to language barriers to health issues, Latinos must work hard to find a comfortable place in America.

    For the most part, Latino families are extremely close. It is not uncommon for several generations of a family to live in one house together. Parents go to work to support their children who are take care of by grandparents. In the 2000 United States Census, it was reported that 30 of Latinos lived in a house with five or more people. Compared to the 21 of African Americans and 11 of White non-Latino who live with five or more people, the difference is quite large (Census 2000). Latinos tend to branch out away from the typical  nuclear  family and include aunts, uncles, cousins and grandparents in daily life. Children are taught that family comes first and to always respect older members. Because of the emphasis on family honor in the Latino community, many feel that they are missing opportunities. While being expected to contribute to the improvement of the family, moving away for school or a job is not as encouraged. For young Latinos that have grown up in the United States around non-Latinos, this can be a difficult concept to accept. Many feel that their families moved to the United States for more chances but because of their culture, they cannot take these chances, no matter how available they are. Many Latinos believe that what is good enough for them is good enough for their children, and the children do not want to confront their hardworking parents with the idea that there are more options (Marketplace 2010).

    Due to the overwhelming Catholic influence on Latinos, marriage and having children are considered crucial aspects to the family. Children are less likely to be educated about birth control or encouraged to use it, which explains why the families are larger. Latinas are also more likely to get married as teenagers. While the divorce rate is lower than average for Latinos, being encouraged to marry and have children at a younger age again takes away more opportunities that a young Latino may want to pursue (Census 2000). 
   
    Unfortunately for Latinos in the United States, education does not appear to be a top priority. More than two in five Latinos have not completed their secondary education. Only 13 receive a bachelors degree. The Hispanic College Fund was created with the idea of encouraging Latinos to keep going with school. The organization is reaching out to students early on, when they are still in the beginning years of high school. They offer chances for kids to spend a week at a college, hoping that experience will push them further. One student who participated in this program said he wants to go to college, so he can have a professional job, not in construction or on a landscaping crew. His parents also want him to go, but because of their lack of education and  somewhat recent arrival to the United States from El Salvador, they did not know how to help their son. Because many Latinos attend high schools with little funding, they do not always have guidance counselors to help them with their college goals (Marketplace, 2010).

    Another problem in the Latino community is health. Obesity is a large problem for Latinos and it is leading to other health issues. Latinos are twice as likely to have diabetes as non-Latinos. While diet and lack of exercise contribute to this issue, some studies show that some Latinos are genetically predisposed towards diabetes, particularly ones with American Indian or African heritages. Another health issue in lines with obesity is heart disease. Despite all of these health concerns, Latinos are less likely than other Americans to receive medications for their ailments or receive more advanced treatment. Cultural barriers between medical professionals and Latinos further delay treatment and wellness encouragement. Because some Latinos are so devoted to their culture, they are less likely to change their dietary habits or overall lifestyle activities for health reasons (Reyes,  2004).

    Probably the most obvious struggle for Latinos is dealing with language. Not all Latinos speak Spanish, but most Spanish speakers are Latino.  Although not the official language of the United States, it is commonly understood that English is the primary language. Thus the reason for the panicked states of many American citizens who worry that an influx of immigrants, mostly from Spanish speaking countries, will make English irrelevant. Although studies have shown that this is not a valid concern, the issue is still at large.

    There are a lot of Latinos that are not proficient in English and to a lot of Americans, this is unacceptable. Despite the fact that within ten years of living in the United States, the majority of Latino immigrants are speaking relatively good Spanish, they are not learning fast enough. Recently a sandwich shop owner in Philadelphia caused controversy over posting a sign saying  This is America. Order in English . When interviewed, the owner, Joey Vento claims that he has received a large amount of support and seen an increase in sales because of his actions. What non-Latinos seem to forget or not realize is that learning a new language can be very difficult for some people, especially if education was never stressed as important.

    A study done concerning how important learning English is for Latinos showed that 96 of immigrants polled in 2003 believe it is very important for their children to learn English. 88 of American born Latinos agree. Only 2 of Latinos polled, both immigrants and natives, said it is not important for their children to learn English (Pew Hispanic Center, 2006). These findings show that Latinos want to learn English, demonstrating the immigrants strong desires to effectively communicate in their new country.

    Latinos are the youngest and largest minority in America and the population will keep growing. As it grows, Latinos will continue to deal with struggles, as they always have and they will continue to play a strong role in all aspects of the United States, just like always.

The individuality of men and women in the constant struggle of war and revolutionaries in many countries has always caused an upheaval. This was the case in the 60s and 70s just as it is the case in modern world. However, it is expected that times hace changed and the effect cannot be expected to be the same as it was in the 60s. As expected, women have faced a greater challenge as compared to their male counterparts. In modern day, women have a more equal place in society than they did in the 60s and 70s. This, of course, played a major role in the impact that revolutinary identity had on gender relations. There have been many feminist and essential approaches to female political identity in the face of revolution and war. This paper will discuss the effects of the identity of those who partake in revolutionary activities.

Revolutionary Identity
Revolution, in simple terms, is a turn around since it is adopted from the Latin equivalent revolution, which means the same. In definition, revolution is an essential transformation in authority or organizational constitution that takes place in a somewhat short span of time. Revolutions have been categorized into three categories by many scholars. The first generation of scholars looked at revolution in terms of social psychology as well as how revolution affected the society. The second generation focused on creating theories to explain the causes of revolution, when they would arise, and how they affected social behavior. The third category of scholars looked at the struggle of power between competing entities as the main causes of revolutions, especially, when these entities could not agree on a given political system

Revolutions, throughout history, have occurred in different ways in terms of methodology (like boycotts, guerrilla warfares, coup de tats revolts, rebellion forces, non violent resistance, civil wars, and revolutionary terror), ideologies(on slavery, equality, freedom), and time spans. The causes of these revolutions have always been attributed to corruption in organizations, famine and natural disasters, dictatorship and monarchy kind of rule, economic depression, communism and capitalism, feudalism and tyranny. 

These revolutions have brought about change in the economical status of countries, different cultural aspects, and structures of socio-political organizations. The most common typologies of revolutions are socio-economic revolutions like industrial revolution and political revolutions. These are an effort to transform the political institutions and the justifications for political authority in society, accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and non-institutionalized actions that undermine authorities (Goldstone, 2001) Revolutionary identity on the other hand is the shaping of the lives of individuals due to the conditions encompassing revolutions. Many countries like Mexico, Cuba and America among other have undergone various revolutions, which were characterized by different movements, to be where they are today. It was a major phase of a nations identity.

Impact of Revolutionary identity on gender values
Land ownership before any kind of revolution, white men were the ones who owned large chucks of land. Women were treated as minorities and majorly worked in the lands or as housewives or slaves. Then the revolts started in most nations. These revolts resulted in many men losing their lands to others, and saw the changes of policy in land ownership. Most lack men were allowed to own land and women too, fought for their rights to be considered equal to men. This allowed women to be allowed to own property like the rest of the populations. A case in point was the agrarian revolution in Mexico under Porfiriato, where many peasants lost their lands and later a law passed which saw all people have a share of land.

Expropriation of land one of the major felt impacts of the revolutions in most nations, especially the Latin American nations was that peasants who owned land were stripped off of their lands. This was especially so during the agrarian revolution. During this time, the government would seize any land and private property and make it their own.

Women participation in the revolts in Mexico, during the revolutions, their roles were valued as they are the ones that nursed the injured soldiers they became the mothers, teachers and wives at the same time. They formed ideologies to have revolutions that preached hope, freedom and equality for all.
Voting rights before the revolution, only wealthy white men were allowed to cast their votes. White men with no property, lack men and women had no voting rights. Gradually, when the revolution began taking pace, and people were asking for equality, these laws were changed in many nations. In the 70s, black men and women were allowed to vote.

Slave trade in the 1800s and early 19th century, slave trade was rampart especially in the northern countries like America, Mexico and Brazil. Rich men owned slaves who worked in their vast lands and who were treated like animals. Most of these slaves were black men, and women who were tasked with house chores. In the 1960s most countries banned slavery and slave trade because of the war and the revolutions that asked for equality. This was done by the slaves themselves who went to the streets to protest against the vast humiliation and treatment they were receiving from their masters, and demanding for equality.

Women soldiers women generally, before the revolutions, were considered housewives or slaves who would do house chores. They were never allowed to voice their concerns or make suggestions to anything. With the up rise of the revolution, women began to raise their voices and demanded to be heard. They began joining various revolution groups and travelling with them in every function. In Mexico, for example, a group of women called the female fighters and the Soldaderas would join revolutions and help them in whatever chores they needed help. They however were not allowed to carry arms, or use them for that matter.

Equality amongst men and women life before the revolution was such that men and women had clear-cut roles. Women were strictly housewives as men did menial works and were the providers. After the revolution, women began revolting and fighting for freedom and equality. According to Mona, women should not talk about help men should do half the work, and women should not ask but tell them to do it. Women advocated for freedom and equality in their households, the government, work places etc. this saw the government appointing women in chief positions and men starting to recognize that women are not only housewives.

Birth of feminism in the 1960s, women started becoming activists and started fighting for civil rights, both as leaders and as mentors. They started to question the gender roles thus helped restructure organizations and institutions around the world. During the 1960s and 1970s there was a sharp division among the womens movements while some advocated for the equal rights between men and women and the similarities between the two genders, others focused on the differences between the two genders and advocated for radical change with regards to these differences. They did this in an effort to show just how different men were treated from their female counterparts, who, according to these women activists, were not seen as human beings. The women started advocating for the expansion of democracy by insisting that equality had to include the realities of its women citizens, and catapulted womens issues onto a global stage. (Frederick)

Indigenous and national movements the revolution saw the uprising of many indigenous and national movements especially in Latin America. In Brazil and Colombia for example, many movements are still existent. These have been the forefront in demanding new political representation, and equal distribution of national resources. Due to these revolutions, Presidents Kirchner of Argentina and Lula of Brazil have taken important steps toward the construction of a regional market and they are no longer amenable to IMF recipes. (Hylton, 2008). In some countries, these movements have formed the government (like the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (IRO) of Cuba) while in others, these movements (the corrupt ones) have lost the advantage in politics

Justice for most Latin American nations, the 1960s and 1970s was the beginning of the end of most revolutions around the world. In Cuba for example, this marked the end of their revolution and most rebels were captured and brought to trial for the many misgivings such as murder, rape and human rights abuses they had committed.

Formation of government Most revolutions were formed due to tyrannical rules, dictatorship and monarchy kind of rules in many states. In Latin America, Dictatorship and tyranny were the main reasons for revolutions. After the revolution, new governments were formed that would see the elimination of illiteracy and implementation of land reforms. In Cuba for example, after the collapse of Che Guevaras revolution, Fidel Castro took office, implemented an atheistic state, and implemented land reforms that saw the subdivision of larger holdings into cooperatives to help raise the living standards of the Cuban people. With the end of revolutions, most nations were reborn into new nations. This meant that there were new set of rules to be governed and new initiatives that would provide protection of the country and its people and look after its peoples welfare, with a new leader to ensure that these things are implemented and followed. This served as a very vital step in ensuring that both men and women were treated equally and that neither gender was victimized or seen as a lower gender.

Religion revolutions had a major impact on religion in most countries. In Mexico for example, the church was a source of hope for most people after the revolution and Mexico as a nation became rooted in Roman Catholicism as their religious status. In others like Cuba, Catholicism and religion was repelled. All properties in the ownership of the church were seized and the bishops expelled from the nation, and the nation was declared as an atheist state.

Youth movements revolutions had major impacts on the youths, and especially those in the universities. The change of revolutions with time saw the change of students attitudes and positions. Due to this, university officials often forces revolutionary ideas and change of curriculum upon their students. This gave rise to youth groups. These youth groups used artistic work like music, poetry and artwork (like graffiti) to speak out and air their own views on the revolutions. This made the government suppress this kind of outcry and suppress freedom on the universities, which then made the students form revolutions against the government. An example is the National University of Mexico.

Economic improvement the revolution saw many nations suffering economically especially the peasants whose lands were being expropriated. The end of the revolution saw economic boosts since the economy was rebooted by the laws put in place by nations (in Cuba, the land reforms helped the peasants), most third world countries had access to funds from IMF to strengthen their economies and many nations engaged in regional and international trade.

Social Aspect the revolution had a major impact on the social aspect of most countries. It ensured the creation of alliances and treaties between nations. In Mexico for example, America had to come in and intervene hence therefore forcing the two countries to become allies. Most countries with revolutionary fronts often have intervention from other countries that enable close ties to exist between these nations.  

Overall, the revolution just had a limited achievement of status for most people, and especially women. Although, most of the inequalities in terms of gender values and roles were done away with, they did not completely remove the status quo of the individual. Women today are still regarded as a minority and they have designated roles that they cannot handle that belong to men. Women, on the other hand, were unable to fight for the poor women to gain more economic justices and were unable to change most institutions thinking on the gender roles and to convince the society that the upbringing of a child is the role of the whole family as a whole regardless of the gender.  This has had an effect on both men and women as they are being brought up.

However, as times keep changing, women have upgraded their place in society and they are now being seen as people who can make a difference in the society in the same capacity in men. It has also been seen that there are various roles that are specifically left for women and men are not expected to undertake them. This is also being seen to change because the roles of both men and women are slowly becoming one and the lines that separate are gradually becoming thinner.

This paper will look at the effects of the subprime mortgage crisis and how it affected the global economy. Special attention will be paid to Latin American countries (Chile) and how they managed to steer away from the global financial crisis. The paper will also give a brief review of how the subprime moorage crisis was triggered, and this should shed some light on how unregulated the US financial sector is. The different aspects of regulation employed in the Chilean financial sector will be looked at and they will be compared top their US counterparts

The Subprime Mortgage Crisis
The financial crisis triggered by the subprime mortgage crisis in the US was initially referred to as the worst economic crisis since the great depression. It was estimated that millions of citizens across the globe will be driven into poverty and the worst hit would be the third world country. Rightly so, the magnitude of this financial crisis was as predicted the US economy went into recession, the British, German, French, Japanese, and other world leading economies slipped also followed suite.

Some countries that had liberalized their financial sector for the sake of rapid economic growth were hardest hit. Top of the list are Iceland and Ireland, whose domestic and international debt will be paid by future generations, long after the recession has passed. Greece has also found itself in a similar situation in terms of accruing an unimaginable debt. Together with Greece, the likes of Ireland and Iceland have one thing in common they all liberalized their financial sectors to the point that banks could conduct individual transactions valued at billions of dollars without any form of oversight.
Interestingly, some countries were barely scathed by the financial crisis triggered by the subprime mortgage crisis in the US. China and India continued with their impressive growths but their economies did slow down a bit when the recession hit. The Central American economies were somehow expected to collapse spectacularly like the Icelandic and Irish economies but this wasnt the case. This was highly unusual, considering their dependence on the US economy.

The same can be said about Latin America. Emerging nations like Brazil have been recording strong growths over the last couple years but their major hindrance is the high poverty level within its borders. A similar situation is witnessed in Argentina, Bolivia and Venezuela these countries have a strong export market but the huge divide between the haves and have-nots translates to poor distribution of the countrys resources. Since the financial crisis was supposed to hit the poor much harder, it was hypothesized that the Latin and Central American economies will eventually come tumbling down like a house of cards. However, this wasnt the case. Why is that
Lessons Learnt by Latin American Countries

The answer lies in how their financial markets are regulated or deregulated. In the 1980s, the US embarked on a financial deregulation campaign which saw the reduction of caps put on loans and deposits. These caps were hurting banks in that investors were opting for mutual funds which offered less restrictive investment vehicles. Congress played an important role in holding hearings and ultimately in passing legislation in the early 1980s that guided deregulation (Hornbeck, 2009, p 2). The FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) was given the mandate of being the financial watchdog during these prosperous times. On the other hand, the Latin American economies followed a totally different route to that of the US. The Latin American countries were prone to financial crises triggered by deep fiscal deficits, poor prospects for servicing debt, questionable macroeconomic and exchange rate policies, and weak institutions (Hornbeck, 2009, p 4). Most investors shied away form these countries during the 1980s and 90s. Those that did always had an exit plan which was initiated the moment they sensed trouble.

With time, oppressive regimes in Latin America were replaced with more sensible governments which embarked on realistic financial reforms. The debt crisis which hit the Latin American countries in the 1980s trained them to be more prudent when it came to regulating their banks and credit institutions. Even though these countries managed to establish, long-term equity and bond markets, they did not engage in the same level of risks as their US and European counterparts. Even though the bond markets have played an important role in Latin America (in terms of attracting foreign exchange), we will look at the banking sector because this was the catalyst in the current financial crisis.

Regulation of Financial Markets
Prudential regulation and bank supervision are the hallmarks of the Latin American banking sector. The past financial crises have taught them to converge with the current international standards in banking, but not at the expense of exposing them to unnecessary risk. In fact, the ability of Latin American countries to avoid major financial instabilities is rather striking. The main reason is their macroeconomic policies. The movement towards flexible exchange rates, in particular, is a major change from previous periods of crisis (Hornbeck, 2009, p 6). Depreciation of their respective currencies is relied upon to do most of the adjustment works and this has freed up their monetary policies, a feat that wasnt achieved in their previous financial crises. Furthermore, the Latin American Central Banks have made efforts to support their banking systems by maintaining high levels international reserves and this has led to a direct increase in liquidity in the private sector. Banks no longer have to comply with stringent reserve requirements and this has provided alternative financing to the corporate sector.

Its clear that the current financial systems in Latin America are more robust than in the past. As reported by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the starting conditions of Latin American banks, on average, were healthy as the current financial crisis unfolded (Hornbeck, 2009, p 8). The Capital-Asset ratios were nearly double the required standards and the returns on equity and liquidity ratios were adequate for non-crisis situations. In short, the banks balance sheets were healthy. They had adequate levels of domestic deposits, few toxic assets, and only light exposure to derivatives, mostly in the large banks (Hornbeck, 2009, p 8).

Lack of Oversight in the US
In general, the Latin American financial systems were effectively regulated and this was unlike their US counterparts. To understand, the unregulated manner of the US financial systems, this paper will look at how the subprime mortgage crisis was triggered. Economists believe the current financial crisis was triggered by a shadow banking system operating within the Western economies. This parallel banking system essentially caused the credit market to freeze due to lack of liquidity in the banking system. The entities which make up the shadow banking system include hedge funds, which borrowed short-term loans in the liquid market and then purchased long-term, illiquid risky assets (Dropkin, 2009). They disrupted the credit markets (banking sector) and made it vulnerable to rapid changes in the market. These entities became critical to the credit markets, underpinning the financial system, but were not subject to the same regulatory controls (Dropkin, 2009).

To illustrate the influence of these entities within the shadow banking system, the total assets they held in 2007 was roughly 2.2 trillion but after unregulated short-term borrowing, this grew to 2.5 trillion, with hedge funds accounting for 1.8 trillion. The shadow banking system owned a big chunk of the entire credit market if one compares them to the assets held by major commercial banks. The combined balance sheet of the then five major investment banks was 4 trillion, while the total assets of the top five bank holding companies in the United States at that point were just over 6 trillion (Gandel, 2009). The entire banking industry in the United States was valued at 10 trillion. As the shadow banking system continued expanding by borrowing from the credit markets, the conventional banking system was continuously exposed to financial vulnerabilities.

The financial crisis was eventually triggered when corporations that had invested in commercial paper withdrew from the money market mutual funds worth 144.5 billion in one week and this was after they had withdrawn 7.1 billion in the previous week. (Chicago Tribune, 2008)These massive withdrawals in two weeks affected the credit markets ability to meet its short-term obligations. The actions of the shadow banking system and the role of the FDIC in insuring some of these transactions were the focus of sharp debate.

It appears like the FDIC was reduced to the mere role of a toothless watchdog due to some weaknesses in its legislations. The first problem was no uniform law that governs the dealings of the entire financial institutions has ever been drafted. Banks, thrifts and insurance companies are answerable to the Bankruptcy Code, with banks and thrifts being subject to a specialized insolvency regime under sections 11 and 13 of the Federal Insurance Act if their deposits are insured by the FDIC (FDIC, 2009). Broker dealers on the other hand are subject to the Securities Investor Protection Act in addition o the Bankruptcy Code (FDIC, 2009). These differing legal regimes made it had for any federal body to regulate all the financial dealings in a fast-moving economy. If any forced regulations were instituted, then time would have been wasted in-between transactions. The common assumption was there are enough professionals in the industry and common sense would prevail. Adding to this, another hypothesis was the system was too big to collapse a mentality which fuelled the demutualization of stock exchanges in Europe, Asia and America.

As much as FDIC might blame the weaknesses on the current legislations and the sheer number of players on the banking industry for their inability to predict and avert the current financial crisis, the fact remains they were caught off-guard and the only word that defines such a weakness is incompetence. This assumption might seem overtly rude but there is credible evidence which shows FDIC did not do enough to avert the crisis. In an interview with Reuters in February 2008, the chairman of FDIC, Sheila Bair, predicted that the probability of a big bank failure was highly unlikely and the institutions that are most likely in trouble are the smaller ones. When asked what keeps her up at night she replied Probably a large bank failure but I dont think thats going to happen the chances of that happening are very, very remote (Poirier, 2008).

Comparing the situation in the United States to the one a stable Latin American economy like Chile, one gets a totally different picture. By all accounts, Chiles economy is the most stable in Latin America and this has been sustained for the last 25 years, thanks to a banking law which that was passed in 1986. In the aftermath of two financial crises, the first that resulted from macroeconomic policy failures that were exacerbated under a system of over regulation, the second directly related to catastrophic under regulation, Chile redesigned its financial regulatory system (Hornbeck, 2009, p 12). After the changes, Chile was able to avoid the major financial crises and the current one is no different. The current capital adequacy standards in Chile demand that every bank must maintain a capital-asset ratio exceeding 8. Chilean banks have to meet capital requirements relative to reserves, deposits, and other liabilities capital must equal at least 3 of total assets. If the banks fail to comply, the government may place caps on their loans or investment abilities.

Unfortunately, this isnt the case in the US financial sector. Hedge funds are allowed to trade without proving that they have the necessary reserves to back up their activities. If the FDIC attempts to regulate them further, then they will be blamed for slowing down a fast-moving economy. The lessons applied from past mistakes have enabled the Latin American countries to steer away from the global financial crisis. The existing prudential regulatory and oversight system has so far limited these types of mistakes from being repeated and is credited with helping maintain the health of the banking sector during the global financial crisis (Hornbeck, 2009, p 12). The focus is now on the US and other debt-riddled countries. It remains to be seen what changes theyll institute to avert future crises.

    In 1959, on the 26th of July, Fidel Castro led a unified and armed revolt to overthrow the current dictator of Cuba, Fulgencio Batista, and end the Batista reign of terror and corruption.  For many years prior to his moment of victory, however, Castro proved highly influential in aiding the corruption of the Batista reign by utilizing his control over the crime operations of mobsters from the United States to insinuate revolutionary ideals into the minds of the Cuban people and secure his future as new dictator of Cuba. 

In fact, Castro did more than aid the degeneration of the Batista reign he might have been the mastermind behind the entire ring of corruption to control and extort the perspectives of the Cuban people and bring about a significant revolt that would literally hand him the reins of dictatorship.  With that said, a close look will be taken into the years leading up to the Cuban Revolution to define the role of the mobsters from the United States and their part in the corruption of the Batista reign, ending with an analytical look into how Fidel Castro formed his revolutionary ideals and brought about his cleverly instituted rise to dictatorship by using the United States mob and their activities in Cuba as his personal weapon of corruption.

    To begin with, the United States has always played a large role in the commerce, business, and even internal affairs of Cuba.  In fact, it was a state whose independence from Spain in 1898 had, in effect, been secured for it by the United States as a result of the Spanish-American war. As such, Cubas freedom of action had been limited for thirty years (1902-1934) under the Platt Amendment, which enabled the United States to intervene legally in the islands internal affairs under certain circumstances.  This legal intervention allowed mobsters and upper-level members of the mafia to come into leadership positions and begin securing a foundation within the seedy underbelly of Cuba.  As their foundation grew, so too did their control and influence over prominent and high-ranking people like the Batista family.

Despite the fact that in the generation since 1933, the countrys industries and services had been increasingly Cubanized by local entrepreneurs, much of the aura of the old days still hung about United States  Cuban relations in the 1950s. This long, ambiguous association with North America led Cuban nationalism to be defined, perforce, as anti-Americanism.  Too, this created an easy opening for men of wisdom like Fidel Castro and his guerilla associates, who saw the rising urgency for change as the perfect opportunity to reinforce that animosity and channel it into directions that would later aid in his end-game mission to overthrow Fulgencio Batista and take control of the dictatorship. 

But what could have prompted Fidel Castros mission to destroy the Batista dictatorship  In essence, the Batista regime of 1952-58 was bad but not wholly evil.  It did continue to encourage the diversification of agriculture which most people recognized then as a desirable venture for Cuba if the economy were to prosper in freedom.  And it was.  Cuba did experience economic and agriculture prosperity, at least in comparison to years past. 

However, Batista himself, though retaining much of his personal charm of manner for occasional visitors, had become very lazy and procrastinatory at a time when Cubamuch richer than it had been in the 1930swas a country much more difficult to govern.  Prosperity brought powerful people to the forefront of Cubas internal affairs.  Men, especially mafia members from the United States, found themselves in powerful positionspositions in which they could exert their control over various financial (or crime based) operations.   

There is a good tale is told by one of Batistas old generals of how when communiqus were issued saying that Batista had spent the day conferring with his officers, he was in fact playing Canasta with them.  Nothing angers a people more than the news that their all-powerful leaders are supposed to be dealing with life altering matters of state and instead they are playing cards. 

It may not be significant of his leadership abilities, but every American remembers when the tragedy of 911 occurred and President George W. Bush received the news.  For  brief moment, he looked like he might be prompted to actionand then, without issuing orders or dealing with the situation, he remained in the classroom in which he was reading children stories and resumed reading as if nothing had occurred.  While some critics assuage this moment as a man who can maintain composure in a time of crisis, others see this as a political leader (in fact, the leader of the free world) who is unwilling to step up in a time when his country needs him.  In much the same way, Batista ignored issues of policy and state and chose to goof off with his buddies to pass the time.      

Even more, Batistas accumulation of a substantial fortune abroad made him more inclined to dream of retirement in the Canaries or perhaps in Portugal.  Only when the opposition began to take shape under Castro and his youngish associatessome of them merely students or even schoolboysdid Batista allow his police the free run which has made them infamous.  His army, divided by personal disputes among his officers, and ill-provided with weapons and supplies, was incapable of coping with a small insurrection whose directors from the start showed themselves masters of public relations both in Cuba and in the United States.  Where Batista made his mistake, and allowed a man as industrious as Fidel Castro to destroy him, was his lack of focus as a leader.  His mind was elsewhereplaying cards with his upper-rank friends, planning vast vacations and retirement in foreign lands, and allowing his crack team of untrained and vicious police to attempt to retain control. 

More than that, Batista demonstrated a penchant for activities provided by the United States mafiaprostitution, high-stakes gambling, and drugs.  However, the question of what to do about Batista did not really present itself as a serious one until the last quarter of 1958.  Until then the Eisenhower administration in the United States had not really taken anything in Cuba very seriously Secretary of State John Foster Dulles thought Latin America uninteresting and despite an earlier Marxist episode in Guatemala involving, among others, Ernesto Guevara, and despite the unpleasantries encountered particularly in Caracas by Vice-President Richard Nixon during his Latin America tour, this was entirely comprehensible.  And that was from the United States side of things.  It was clear to all that Batista had become a problem for more than just his country. 

On the other hand, Castro had only a few hundred armed followers he had captured no towns at all and the level of violence was modest the figure of 20,000 killed in the war against Batista cropped up only in 1959, after Castro was in Havana.  However, Castro didnt need to be that powerful of a force to take over Batistabecause Batista was not prepared for anything, let alone armed violence and people equipped with zealot-level opinions intending to destroy him.  

In many ways, however, Fidel Castros revolutionary action and literal creation of the Cuban Revolution was a bit too easy.  In truth, he didnt have a large number of revolutionaries, the fight itself didnt last long, and he immediately took the reins of Cubas dictatorship, hardly moments after Batista had fallen.  How, then, was he able to secure such a victory  In essence, Castro used Batistas greatest weaknesshis penchant for gambling, drugs, and prostitution provided by the United States mafiaand elevated Batista as a man who must be destroyed before he destroyed their beloved Cuba.
To start with, tourism, like Cubas other trade items, depended on the economic health of the market place. The enterprise had generated profits and employment and, for a while, had shielded Havana from the most extreme financial repercussions of the islands reliance on agriculture.  Tourism had always been the financial barometer for the health of Cuba.  The more people who came to buy and gamble and in general enjoy what Cuba had to offer, the better Cuba was off financially.  And for many years, tourism was up and financial meters were in the black.   

However, the simple financial success was not indestructible. The islands foreign trade in 1933 was about one-quarter of what it had been in 1928.  The equivalent of more than 400 million in US currency circulated through the Cuban economy in 1926, but only 32 million greased the wheels of commerce in 1934.  People earned little money to pay for purchases.  Even more, a public works plan could not begin to soak up the ranks of the unemployed even government employees went unpaid.  Sugar workers salaries averaged eighty-three cents a day, and circumstances forced many workers to accept thirty cents if that was all the mill owner offered. 

In the years leading up to the Cuban Revolution, tourist sector employment languished too, as hotels and restaurants closed.  Tour bus and car services lost their passengers.  Cuban manufacturers of soap and sweets, perfume and paint, cement and crystal, souvenirs and straw hats felt the pinch as tourists disappeared.  Breweries and distilleries certainly felt the loss.  Business in cafs and bars deteriorated to such a degree that unemployed cabaret musicians strolled from place to place and performed for whatever the patrons were willing to give them.  It had become a sad and desperate time for the people of Cubaand they were just looking for someone to blame, or better yet, someone who could bring their country back to a state of financial wealth and stability. 

The people of Cuba became so distraught that a volcano of discontent spewed a terrain-altering seriousness across the pleasure-bent tourist landscape and it finally erupted.  Earnest reformers debated the social utility of tourism.  Did a successful industry require Cuba to cater to the base desires of the marketplace, or could tourism be used to uplift and educate, to achieve desirable cultural gains that is, could Cuba market tourism that elevated and enlightened as well as entertained  And this was in the late 1930slong before Fidel Castro became powerful enough to take this ideology of discontent and harness it for his own purposes.

And then Cuba took another hit.  Already subject to economic and political handicaps, the tourist industry reeled when reports connected the U.S. mobster Charles Lucky Luciano (Salvatore Lucania) with gambling activities at the Jockey Club and Casino Nacional, two critical centers of tourist activity.  Luciano, a veteran of the prostitution and bootlegging eras of U.S. organized criminal activities, had been sent to prison on drug trafficking charges in 1936 and was paroled and deported to his native Italy a decade later.  Luciano had grand plans of his own, and being deported did little to hamper his drug activity. 

Indeed, shortly after Lucianos departure, the U.S. Bureau of Narcotics noted an increase of Turkish heroin on the streets and traced its route through Italy.  When Luciano showed up in Havana late in 1946, U.S. narcotics agents consulted their files.  Accumulated information on his Cuban connections convinced them that he intended to establish Havana as a transfer point for the hugely profitable heroin trade into the United States.  And this is exactly what Luciano proceeded to accomplish.  Cuba became his own private drug ringand Fidel Castro watched with pleasure as powerful political leaders, including Batista, became embroiled in the drug ring and even protected Luciano from getting caught.

At one point, Luciano rented a home in suburban Miramar and met with old friends and colleagues from Havana and the United States during a six-month period while the U.S. unsuccessfully pressured Cuban officials to oust him.  Habaneros complained that the longtime Mafia boss enjoyed protection from high Cuban officials.  Even more, those complaints did not go unnoticed.  The interior minister refused to order Lucianos appearance for a hearing on illicit drug trafficking charges, most likely to avoid revealing the names of his Cuban associates.  He was a slippery catch for the U.S. Narcotics Bureau, who struggled both politically and with added pressure from the United States and Cuba.  Finally, deciding that the only way to win the war on drugs was to utilize them, the U.S. Narcotics Bureau threatened to cut off supplies of legitimate medical narcotics and the Cubans arrested Luciano and sent him back to Italy.

Intelligent brains in the fields of economics have always suggested that it is prudent not to create differences between the residents of various parts of the world by protectionist policies, thus treating the entire world as a common global hub which in turn is beneficial to every member of this common hub. Making the entire world barrier free at once is not practically possible and thus trade agreements like NAFTA, SAFTA, ASEAN etc give motivation to the participating countries when they realize the benefits and non participating countries when they observe the difference in economy from the participating nations in order to make the world barrier free.

There have always been concerns and doubts about the effectiveness and significance of free economy and a divide of people for and against it. Economists from the for side suggest that it is prudent not to create differences between the residents of various parts of the world by protectionist policies, thus treating the entire world as a common global hub which in turn is beneficial to every member of this common hub.  The economists in few of the developing countries, on the negative side suggest that it is a ploy by the developed countries in order to capture the markets in the developing countries. Their say is that the affluent producers in the developed nation have the capability to produce the goods at a cheaper price from mass production and this will lead to a bankruptcy for small and medium enterprises.

The important theories in this regards are-
Adam Smiths theory of Free Trade.
David Ricardos Theory of Comparative Costs.

Adams Smiths Theory
Adam Smith justified that the interest of consumer be given the priority over the interest of producer and if the interest of producer has to be attended, that interest should be helping to work for the interest of consumer in some way or the other. 

He proposed the concept of invisible hand which says that there should be no interference from the government or any other authority in the smooth functioning of the market and the market would correct itself automatically with the help of a pure demand and supply logic.  Any artificial curbs or restrictions on the market hamper the smooth functioning thereby a delay in the realization of correct prices of the goods or commodities. He analyzed that different individual although may appear working for their interest, but, at the end of the day are contributing for the welfare of the society. 

Smith (The Wealth of Nations, 1776) suggested that if the quantity of any commodity brought to the market is short of the actual demand, and all the potential consumers for the commodity cannot be supplied with the commodity, then there will be a competition emerging in between various consumers and thereby the market price for the commodity will rise. Conversely, if the quantity brought to the market is higher than the actual demand, then there will be a competition amongst the different sellers of the same commodity to get their purchased lot sold in the market thereby leading to a reduction in the prices.

David Ricardos Theory of Comparative Costs
David Ricardo also analyzed that if look in the absolute terms then the free trade is much better for the global economy as compared to the restricted economy. He deducted that the Gross product in terms of the quantity will be much higher in the case of free trade. His theory could be explained with the help of the following hypothetical example. Consider a hypothetical case in which China can produce both wheat and rice more cheaply than France (ie it has an absolute advantage in both commodities). What David Ricardo suggested was that it still would be mutually beneficial for both countries to develop an expertise and trade.


Table 1
CountryWheatRice Cost Per Unit In Man HoursCost Per Unit In Man HoursFrance1530China1015
In Table 1, in France with same number of men deployed, two units of wheat could be produced for every unit of Rice. This means that production of every unit of rice, results in the decline of production in the wheat by two units (i.e. the opportunity cost of a unit of rice is 2 units of wheat). In China, this ratio is 23, much better than 12 in the case of France. That is the opportunity cost of a unit of rice is 1.5 units of wheat in China. Now since the relative cost or the comparative costs differ therefore it is mutually beneficial for the two countries to engage in trading activities even though China has an absolute advantage in both commodities.


Since, China is relatively better at producing rice than wheat therefore China is said to have a COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE in the production of rice. France is relatively better at producing wheat than rice so France is said to have a comparative advantage in the production of wheat.

Table 2 shows how trade might be advantageous. Costs of production are as set out in Table 1. France is assumed to have 270 man hours available for production. Before trade takes place it produces and consumes 8 units of wheat and 5 units of rice. China has fewer labour resources with 180 man hours of labour available for production. Before trade takes place it produces and consumes 9 units of wheat and 6 units of rice. Total production between the two economies is 17 units of wheat and 11 units of rice.

Table 2
C o u n t r y Production Before Trade After TradeWheat Rice Wheat Rice France 8 518 0 China 9 60 12 T o t a l 17 11 18 12
If both countries now specialize, China producing only rice and France producing only wheat, total production is 18 units of wheat and 12 units of rice. Specialization has thus enabled the world economy to increase production by 1 unit of wheat and 1 unit of rice. If we apply the same logic to the entire economy of the world the production will increase by a gigantic amount.

There are a few assumptions in the simple theory of comparative advantage which are as follows-
No transportation cost is attached..
Costs are constant and there are no economies of scale.
Only two economies are involved in producing two goods.
The theory assumes that traded goods are homogeneous (i.e. exactly identical).
Factors of production are assumed to be perfectly mobile.
There are no tariffs or other trade barriers.
There is perfect knowledge, so that all buyers and sellers know where the cheapest goods can be found internationally.

Mexico has been one of the biggest beneficiaries of North American Free Trade Agreement. A good number of American companies have opened their development centers at Mexico utilizing the cheaper manpower available there and a much lower trade and investment barrier. This intern had reaped good profit for the company because they had lower cost of production. So they could afford to sell their products at a lesser selling price out in United States which benefited even the consumer as he had to now pay a lesser price for the same product which is a win-win situation for consumers as well as producer in United States.

Now looking from Mexicos perspective, investments by U.S. firms in their country meant a higher Foreign Direct Investment and higher government earning by the means of taxes on these companies. The higher government earning is directly related to the amenities that could be offered to the citizens of Mexico. To add to this increased FDI meant a fresh lot of jobs created for the youth as well as the veterans of Mexico and an increased standard of living. We will just take an example of Delphi Corporations which has set up its auto-parts plant at Ciudad Juarez.
The assembly line employees people in Mexico from the age twenty to those in their sixties. After the reduced barriers and tariffs, through NAFTA, Delphi had increased its employee strength in Mexico to a whopping 70,000 receiving up to 70 million U.S. made components every day, to assemble into parts. The average salary offered to a laborer by the company is 1.9 dollars an hour which is much lower as per U.S. standard but that is three times the minimum salary wages in Mexico, as per the statistics taken in 2003. Moreover, the work culture at Delphi is one of the best in the country.

Both Mexico and United States have seen immense benefits as a result of NAFTA. U.S. producers were having a hard time with stiff competition from the Asian counterparts especially the lower cost Chinese goods produced as a result of a cheaper manpower and devalued currency. With NAFTA in effect, they rushed to Mexico and the Mexican annual average Foreign Direct Investment increased to more than 12 billion dollars a year which is much higher than that of India. For Mexico it yielded a growth of annual average income by more than 24 which is multiple folds more than per capita income of China. The success of NAFTA has given motivation to the Latin counterparts of Mexico to open up their economy and join the brigade of globalization.

However there are a certain factors because of which countries try to introduce the trade barriers generally in the form of import duties some of which are as follows-
Favorable balance of trade and reducing the fiscal deficit.
In order to protect a specific industriesclass of people.
Anti dumping duties
Public Psychology 
Policies created to woo vote banks generally in democratic form of governments.


Favorable balance of trade and reducing the fiscal deficit-
Fiscal deficit is a major reason for which most of the government introduces the protectionist policies.  Fiscal deficit is given by the formula-

Fiscal Deficit Imports - Exports

Countries try to reduce their fiscal deficit as far as possible.  In their attempt to reduce import they try to minimize the imports into their country by introducing entry barriers on goods and commodities which are getting imported from other countries in the form of import duties.

The balance of trade (which is also the difference between exports and imports) is said to be favorable when the fiscal deficit is negative that is when exports are higher than the imports.
Every country wants the balance of trade to be in its favor by exporting more and importing less.  The countries try to introduce an entry barrier thinking that the other nations will still keep on importing the goods supplied, which is highly improbable. If a country resorts to curb in imports by adding import duties, its counterpart will also resort to the same measure and if every country does so the fundamental of globalization will vanish and hence the gross production of the world will come down significantly causing the economies to suffer.

In order to protect a specific industriesclass of people
Generally the developing countries have a certain segments of society who are poor and their interest needs to be protected against the market competition. Therefore the government protects their interest either by giving them subsidy or by protecting their interest by introducing import barriers.  For an instance, some of the developed countries give agriculture subsidies to their farmers, who are financially weak, so that they could earn their livelihood by engaging themselves in their family business of farming.  But, it should be understood that subsidy should be introduced only for the financially weaker class and not the already profit generating segment and the subsidy policies should be reviewed time to time

Antidumping duties
Some nations argue that owing to free trade, other nations may dump some of the products in their market, thus creating a collapse in their economy.  In order to prevent this, they have an option of introducing anti dumping duties which are another entry barrier used to prevent free trade.

Public Psychology
There have been recent incidents of protectionist policies by US trying to reduce outsourcing by passing a law which is favorable to the companies that do not outsource owing to the psychology of the people that outsourcing creates a dent in their job.  Intelligent brains however argue that outsourcing results an increase in profit for the organization which in tern is also passed to the consumers not only in the form of reduced price but also generation of more jobs in their own country itself.  Owing to a similar kind of public psychology, albeit in terms of import of foreign goods, Indian government adopted protectionist policies until as late as 1992 and was considered as underdeveloped economy of the world.  The condition of the country had deteriorated so much that the government of the country was forced to open their market and finally after around 16 years it is amongst the fastest growing countries of the world.

Policies created to woo vote banks generally in democratic form of governments-
Although there are limited number of cases, but it has been seen in some instances that in order to woo vote banks from a particular section of society, the government introduces entry barriers and thus find increased number of people backing their policies.

What so ever may be the case, the economists across the globe agree that in normal circumstances the free trade is the only manner in which we could develop a world which has every part of it growing.  So lets try and make this world barrier free

The Cuban revolution of 1959 had a large impact on the lives of women in the Caribbean highland. The revolution transformed the lives of women in the country in many ways. The role of women in the Cuban revolution was so significant that today no one can talk of Cuban revolution or women in Cuba without mentioning their role in transformation of Cuba. They were involved in combat missions as well as in spreading revolutionary ideas. Before the revolution, women in Cuba were faced with many challenges which included high level of illiteracy and unemployment when compared to men and were also highly exploited. Following the revolution, the status of women in the Cuban society has changed significantly. Women are able to access equal educational and employment opportunities as well as better medical care which have transformed their lives dramatically (Murray, pp 57).

This paper will discuss the challenges faced by women in the pre revolution Cuba and their role in the revolution.

Women in the Cuban revolution
    Cuba was colonized by Spain and attained it independence during the events of the Spanish American war. After gaining independence, Cuba became a protectorate of the United States. The Cuban economy and administration was dominated by the United States where lands in the country were owned by corporate from the United States. However, in the 1930s, things in Cuba started to change with the immergence of figures such as Fulgencio Batista who was determined to spearhead the Cuban destiny. He was concerned about the trend in the country which was becoming more of a nationalist country and started ganging up support for businesses owned by Cubans. By the mid 1930s, Batista had become a very popular leader in the country. His support for Cuban business created wealthy classes in the country which had not existed before. He was determined to make Cuban economy one of the best economies in the Caribbean (Wright, pg 74).

    Although Batista was a very popular leader at first, his popularity faded with time. He was unable to deal with corruption that had become a major political problem in the country, the increased number of criminal gangs which had gained influence in the country controlling gambling. He was also unable to deal with the interest of large corporate organizations operating in the country especially those from the United States. His inability to deal with the growing situation in the country was evident when he became easily influenced by interest groups such as the criminal syndicates and the corporate from the United States (Wright, pp 94). His image deteriorated significantly as he turned into a corrupt and selfish dictator. He employed autocratic form of leadership outlawing all opposition political parties and trade unions. He also formed a special police force which had a mandate of intimidating anybody opposed to his leadership. His autocratic leadership especially in the 1950s changed the Cuban society significantly. Economic interests were a major issue in his leadership which resulted into social stratification. The economic and social disparities between different races became so pronounced in the country than it had been experienced before (Wright, pp 106).

    Prior to the Cuban revolution, the Cuban society like other societies in the world was a patriarchal society. The social, political and economic aspects of life were dominated by men. Stereotypes existed in the society and the roles of women and men at home or in the society were stipulated. The role of women was taking care of the family while men were considered the head of the family. Women were entitled to very few basic rights and sacrificed their potential in the public life and other interests including their wellbeing and happiness on behalf of the family. Women were mistreated by men and despite laws in the country that outlawed such mistreatments, women received limited assistance from the government agencies such as the law enforcers and legal establishments. During the reign of Batista, a big disparity was created between the lives of women in the country. There were women who were wealth and influential in the society changing the role in the traditional Hispanic societies (Murray, pp 57).

    Prior to the revolution, the structure of leadership in the country had created a group of wealth women who played a role in the patriarchal society. These wealthy women who were mainly white and lived in the urban centers had increasingly gotten into power. They were involved in large businesses and took active roles in the politics of the country. The primary mode of operations of these influential women in the society was through  attachment to an influential male.  In the 1950s more and more women started attaining university education and held various positions in the government and the corporate world (Murray, pp 57).

    While women attached to wealthy and influential males in the country gained influence in the society and lived a decent life, the majority of women in the country lived in extreme poverty. Majority of the poor women were overlooked by feminism which favored wealthy and influential women in the society. The growing feminism was an advantage to the wealthy women who became more or less equal to the wealthy men. The racial biasness and social stratification created by the autocracy of Batista negatively affected majority of the women. While the traditional values of the Hispanic societies kept most of the women out of political and social life, the social stratification and racial biasness kept African Cubans out of influential positions (Murray, pp 58).

    The society in Cuba was not different from other societies in the world where wealthy women were making gains in the male dominated society. Such women would have a tendency of pushing for reforms and the rights of women since they are likely to benefit more. This is according to the Marxist ideologies. This was the case in the United States suffrage movement where wealthy white women gained their right to vote and did not care about the rights of the black poor women. Although Batista was able to gang up support for Cuban owned businesses, many of the land in the country were owned by corporate organizations from America. They were marked by exploitation of the society and corruption. The Cuban women in the peasant society were at a disadvantage. They were married at a very young age and in many cases to elderly men. Women had to work hard in the field to provide for their families at a very tender age (Stone, pp 92).  

    Batista who had grown to a corrupt dictator started receiving severe opposition from the general public and many people who previously supported him started disappearing. The curfews he enforced were violated by the majority of the public. This led to him authorizing the use of force against those who opposed his leadership. However, he was unable to stop the revolution by smashing the press, shooting of those who opposed him or curfews. Although the revolution led by Fidel Castro that brought the radical change in the country was dominated by male figures, the women also played a major role in the revolution. However, the role of women in this historical revolution has been in many cases overlooked by many historians. Most of the publications discussing the Cuban revolution have slighted the role of the females in bringing change to the island (smith and padula, pp 22). One downplay on the role played by women in the Cuban revolution is in the movie released in 1964. The movie known as the Soya Cuba portrays the woman in the society as a submissive being while the male is portrayed to play a dominant role in the society. The movie portrays the Cuban women as powerless and unable to defend themselves against oppression. Although the movie has scenes that make it clear that both men and women are victims of the oppression, women have nothing to do about it.

    However, this was not the true picture of the revolution. Women took major roles in bringing change into the island. The role of women in the Moncada attack while Fidel Castro was in jail is indisputable. The movement was led by women with most of the prints being distributed by women. Fidel Castro justified the attack using the history will absolve me slogan which was printed and distributed by women notably his sister Lydia, his wife, Hernandez and Santa Maria (Gonzalez-Perez, pp 50). Lydia also played a major role in freeing Castro out of prison. She was a courageous lady who played an important role in the formation and leadership of a group of women who had their husbands or close relatives imprisoned. This group of women carried out numerous campaigns and corrected signatures from the public which was later presented to the senate as a petition for amnesty of the imprisoned men. The women also organized demonstrations to push the government to grant the political prisoners amnesty in 1955. The pressure resulting from these women forced Batista to release Fidel Castro and other political prisoners on the mothers day in 1955 (Murray, pp 66).

    Fidel Castros sister played a significant role in the revolution. Fidel took refuge in her house when he was released from prison from where he issued directions to his supporters. The July 26th movement which took place after Fidel was released for example was spread throughout the country by women such as Hernandez and Santamaria. They were members of the national directorate that was formed by Fidel Castro together with other rebel leaders. While women were performing this role in the country, Fidel together with other rebels left for Mexico to for guerrilla warfare training. It is noted that Fidel welcomed the eagerness of women and their dedication to take part in the revolution. As opposed to what is portrayed in the Soy Cuba, the idea that revolution was the role of men did not exist in these women who are today considered heroines in the revolution (Murray, pp 67).  

    The involvement of women in the revolution attracted the attention of the male rebels. Some rebels questioned Fidels decision to give women weapons while some of the men did not have them. While some men were not armed, some of the women were armed with M-1. This irritated Fidel who told his men that women were better soldiers out of anger. In a speech in 1981 in Granma, Fidel acknowledged the role of women in the revolution where he stated that the women truly showed that they were better soldiers. The Mariana Grajales was the name given to the brigade in which women who participated in the revolution were placed. This brigade distinguished itself in the operations and combats (Wright, pg 46). Fidel noted the dedication and distinguished service of the brigade with many victories which made them show up the mens brigades. They were able to capture weapons by raiding truckload which the male brigades were unable to capture. In his speech, Fidel Castro admitted that there was biasness in the combats against women. However, Federal believed that women should not be discriminated even before the revolution and saw their role as an essential role in the revolution. Despite this believe, the role of women in the revolution surpassed his expectations on their capabilities in carrying out their mandates (Muriel, pp 246).

    The event after the revolution changed the Cuban society and the life of the Cuban woman. This took place when Fidel Castro took power. His communist party of Cuba pushed for many changes in the country. They were however faced with several challenges which included illiteracy. By the time Fidel Castro come to power after the fall of Batista leadership, over fifty percent of the Cubans were illiterate. Most of the illiterate people were women due to the biasness in the patriarchal society. Brigadistas was formed by women who took active part in the revolution war. Most of these women were below the age of 18 years. These young women went to school and later traveled in different parts of the country teaching other people how to read and write. These young women believed that by teaching others to read and write they, learn more (Stone, pp 110).

          Despite these changes in the society as a direct consequence of the revolution, women faced discrimination in the male dominated society. There were cases where men were opposed to their women going to school to learn. The Brigadistas used several methods to alleviate this challenge. They instilled the belief that men who were opposed to their wifes going to school were villainous using a film called Lucia. Fidels administration came up with mechanisms of alleviating the biasness men had against women. The government established a school in Havana where women were attracted to the school with the promise that they will learn beneficial skills such as sewing. This was considered to be the work of women which attracted a lot of women in the countryside. However, the sewing classes in the school were combined with other classes where the women were taught to read and write. The women were also taught history as well as the ideologies of the communist party (Stone, pp 9).

    The effects of this approach by the government have had far reaching impact on the society of Cuba. The focus on improving the literacy level by Fidel Castros administration immediately after the revolution has created a literate society in Cuba. Cuba is today rated the country with the highest literacy level in the western hemisphere. The literacy level in Cuba is high than in any country in Latin America and the United States (Stone, pp 69). 

    The Cuban women are faced with various challenges as they try to involve themselves in the social, political and economic life. These challenges includes the gender based discrimination and economic embargos placed against the Cuban government by the United States. It is clear that more women taking part in politics and in the workforce was one of the goals of the revolution. Unless women were given the opportunity to participate productively other than being restricted in the household jobs, there will always be inequality. Therefore, by more women going to work, it was beneficial to the revolution. However, the women were faced with protest from their husbands who followed the Batista national doctrines that discriminated women. The economic embargos however forced the women back home because the income did not enable them access better living conditions (Muriel, pp 246).

    Since the Cuban revolution in the second half of the 20th century, the rights of women have been a central issue in the Cuban policies. However, the Cuban society is still a male dominated with some gender based discrimination being evident. Women in Cuba today are not assured of equal opportunities or status with men in the society. The Cuban society has remained an extended family structured society with the women assuming the household chores while men dominate the public life (Safa, pp 137). The government has enacted policies that over the years have transformed the lives of women in the society since the revolution.

    The Cuban constitution is explicit in the rights of women in the society. Women are guaranteed social, economical and political rights in the constitution. The women are also guaranteed family and cultural rights as well as equal opportunities by the constitution. The role discriminates any form of discrimination that is based on gender and maintains that men and women are equal before the law. Apart from the constitution, there are various parliamentary commissions that have been established by the government of Cuba to enforce laws that touch on the rights of women (Muriel, pp 257). 

    These government policies have transformed the lives of many women in Cuba. Cuba has developed into one of the most fair and equal society in the world. The literacy level among the women is very high with a good number of women being employed and accessing better healthcare services. The lives of women in Cuba have to that effect improved. This is partly due to the society focus on the quality of life the people are living rather than the amount of profits made by corporate organization. The women of Cuba have emerged out of the subjugation evident in capitalistic societies and have taken a more active role in the social and economic life (Murray, pp 59). 

    The role of women in the Cuban revolution and the building of the post revolution Cuba cannot be underestimated. They took part in spreading the revolutionary ideologies in the country as the rebel men trained in Mexico. Fidel Castro also acknowledged the role of women in the combat missions where he noted that women proved to be better soldiers during the revolution. Despite the biasness prior to the revolution, the post revolution government has guaranteed women equal rights and opportunities.

Cuba has experienced a lot of changes as far as religion is concerned from the pre-revolutionary period to the present. Cubas religion in the sixteenth century was known as the African Spiritism. This was the type of the religion that the Africans who were initially from Yoruba (Nigeria) practiced. The introduction of the Roman Catholic religion happened prior to the Cuban revolution. The religion was introduced by the Spanish colonizers and was followed by over half of the Cuban population then. As a result of its introduction, there emerged a combination of both the catholic rites and African worship which was known as Santeria, practiced by many Cubans. The syncretic Afro-Cuban Santeria religion adopted cultural heritages from both the Yoruba people of Nigeria and the Catholics. The Santeria religion gave African deities names to Christian saints, including Mary.   It was then engrained in the Cuban culture and was respected by other religions like the Presbyterian, Baptist and the Methodists (Everyculture, 2010).


My purpose in writing this paper is to discuss religion during the Cuban revolution by focusing on the Catholic Churchs changing relationship towards the revolution. During this time frame, the Church went from supporting and siding with the revolution, to confronting it, and finally being silenced by it. Through extensive research and the interpretation of primary sources, this essay will give a basic understanding of the relationship between the church and the state during the Cuban Revolution. I anticipate arguments and opinions that are different from my own due to the complexity of the subject I wish to portray, but I intend to answer the question of how the Cuban revolution impacted the Cuban Catholic Church. The essay will show how the political views and beliefs by Castro and his followers during the Cuban Revolution weakened the Catholic Churchs role in the Cuban society. Finally, the essay will also illustrate the necessary steps the Church had to make in order to reinstate itself in the Cuban society.

The Catholic Church under Fulgencio Batista
Cuban Christianity went through much suffering at the time the country was fighting for its independence in 1902.This was because the church supported the colonizing Spanish regime. As a result, the government and the church had to separate officially. In March 1958, the Roman Catholic Church made an appeal to President Fulgencio Batista. A government of national union, was demanded by the church, but this annoyed the government circles. This led to the declaration of withholding radio stations and newspapers against broadcast and publication. The declaration demanded for preparation for the restoration of normal political life (Mainwaring, 1986).

At one position, the church found itself in a dilemma, whether to be on the side of Fulgencio Batista so that they could continue having influence or to assume a moral and political position consciously. The church formed the Catholic action which had the role of observing the Catholic Episcopal hierarchy roles in terms of its political and social roles. In 1950, the Catholic Church decided to respond to Batistas dictatorship. The churchs magazines showed the differences that existed between the dictators regime and the revolutionaries (Mainwaring, 1986).

The Cuban Revolution
The Cuban revolution traces back to 1959 when Fidel Castro overthrew Fulgencio Batista (Wright, 2001). Castro had strong support at the start of his rule. He however advocated for communism, and this made the US make attempts to overthrow him (Library think quest, 2003).

When Fidel Castro came into power, the initial response of the Cuban to the revolution was positive, as they thought that Castro would support them because he had been a member of the Catholic action during his college days in Havana. In one of the publications of the Catholic Church, it praised the revolution as a transcendental stage for Cuba. However, the Catholic Church did not stop attacking his communist ways. The Catholic Church wanted a situation whereby Cuba would be encouraged to adopt a catholic form of socialism instead of fully affiliating with the Soviet Bloc (Park, 2005).

Castros religious background
        Castros opposition to Christianity traces back to his background during his days as a student. Castro went through the Jesuit education system which was Christian based, as his parents were strong Catholics. Castro opposed the Jesuit education, especially the morality views he was taught. He viewed all what he was taught as morals to be irrational as it only stressed on the will to believe. As a boy, he disliked the silence that the students were obliged to maintain every time there were religious retreats. He also loathed all the times he had to sit down to listen to sermons about rewards, punishment and hellfire (Cox, 1987).

Castros relationship with the church
        Castro, throughout his leadership has survived four popes. There were strained relationships between the Vatican and Cuba as a result of human rights violation by Castro. Also, the Catholic Church was unable to attack the Castro regime on social and political grounds, and there was no spread of the theology of liberation in Latin America. The Catholic Church in Cuba suffered the effects of the rupture after Castro came into power. The rupture is the period when some Cubans fled the Island to other parts of America, mainly Florida, due to the violation of human rights during his leadership (Park, 2005).

Castro nationalized the property that belonged to the church, ordered the closure of the catholic schools and the expulsion of one hundred priests. Several members of the Catholic clergy fled to the United States and Spain. Castro silenced the church and declared Cuba an atheist state. However, the Catholic Church in Cuba did not give up operating in disguise ways, and the church in Diaspora continued to support the Cubans (Park, 2005).

        During the 60,s, the church was subjected to a lot of persecution by Castro. According to Pastor Clara, the first woman president of the Cuban Baptist Society, a lot of hostility towards religion existed immediately after the 1959 revolution. In her pamphlet With Open Heart, the decade that followed the revolution period was chaotic. The supporters of the revolution stated that it was not advisable for parents to allow their children to go to church. All religious believers were described as ignorant, irrational and diffident. The religious believers suffered a lot of discrimination at their places of work an in schools. As a result, many of the religious believers opted to conceal their faith. The government was more than determined to promote atheism. There was a mass departure of Christians from the Island whish discouraged any open expressions in terms of religion. Several parents at this time were unwilling to encumber their young ones with the difficulties associated with Christian baptism (Oliva, 1994).

The church was against Castros policy on communism as it violated the human rights of the Cubans. That is the reason why the church revolted against his leadership. Castros argument however did not change .He strongly believed that one could be a Christian and still work together with communists to change the world. Shortly after the start of his leadership, Castro expelled many Spaniard and Cuban priests. In a bid to hide his reasons, he publicly declared that he had done that because the priests had neglected the poor and were working with the rich only. This had an ironic twist as he had expelled them because they had opposed his communist ways (Cox, 1987). 

    Relationship between the Catholic Church and the Cuban government was tense as a result of the revolution. The church was denied the permission of owning independent press bodies. No schools, hospitals and nursing homes were supposed to be established by the Catholic Church and no priest was supposed to be trained. Castro even blocked trained catholic priests from coming to Cuba (Cox, 1987). 

A lot of changes occurred in the church once the Cuban revolution came to be. All those bishops or church leaders that had been collaborating with Batista fled because of fearing his acts of revenge. There were groups like The Holy See which emerged so as to advocate for more church presence in Cuba, and to establish stronger ties with the Cuban government. The church was prepared to campaign. The archbishop of Havana was promoted to the Cardinals College. The church was now more than ready to advocate for reconciliation, even though they faced many bans, like the media and the freedom of expression (Mainwaring, 1986).

Castro always feigned to be a Christian supporter every time an influential person visited the country. During Reverend Jesse Jacksons visit in 1985, Fidel attended a meeting held by catholic bishops and also attended a church service in a Methodist church. At the time of Jesses visit, he went ahead and saluted the Latin Americas Christian democratic parties. This was indeed a behavior of Castro, as it is during such instances that he preached what he secretly loathed and never practiced (Cox, 1987).

The Religious awakening
    Cardinal Rogers, a top Vatican official and Castro had a meeting in Havana in the late 80s.This was as a result of the popes disclosure on his intended visit to Cuba. The news was warmly welcomed by the Cuban Catholic Church, and for the first time since 1960, Castro bowed down to the request of the pope. The Catholic Church had the liberty of holding street processions and open air masses. During the visit by Pope John Paul 11 in 1998, a new stage began, which was the stage of reconciliation. Religion, after so long a time got attention and it reentered the public sphere. The Cubans did not have any fear of going to church or expressing themselves in terms of religion (Cardona, 2006).  

The pope urged the Cubans to work very hard towards making a great Cuban future and have a national reconciliation. Since there were Cubans who had fled the country, they also had to reconcile with those who lived in the island.  Holly Ackerman, from the catholic archdiocese of Miami stated that, Because we espouse no political ideology, and preach only the love of Christ, we can provide a safe place where Cubans with different views can come together, reflect on their experiences and arrive at a common course of action (Park, 2005).

The Pope criticized the killings of the Christian workers that were made by the regime and paramilitary rule during his visit. He held outdoor masses and drew great crowds. He even had permission to give egalitarian speeches. The Cuban government permitted papal messages to Cubans pertaining to the importance of religion. There was access to the press, and the popes messages were printed on the government-run newspaper, Granmas front page. Castro went ahead and declared Christmas a public holiday (Wall, 1998).    

     The American president at that time, President Clinton declared his interest to reunite Cuba and America. However, Clinton needed a gesture that would assure his political cover. As a result, Castro changed the Cuban institution in a bid to change the official aesthetic stance. This opened a channel for the Cuban citizens to acknowledge their faith publicly (Wall, 1998).

    The visit of the pope led to a religious awakening. A religious rebirth became discernible, and there was a remarkable birth of Protestant and Catholic churches in Cuba. Castro started denouncing his past acts and claimed that he was not against Christianity but was advocating for complete adherence of communism. The constitution was amended in a bid to prohibit intolerance against persons based on their religious beliefs. Therefore the believers were promoted to complete citizenship and were guaranteed equal protection by the law (Oliva, 1994).

The current state of Cubas religion
    Presently, there are many renowned religious denominations in Cuba. The Catholic Church is the chief religion. It is the largest and the most organized. Protestant denominations continue to sprout up, though. The Cuban constitution gives the citizens the freedom of religion. The Methodists, Episcopalians and Presbyterians   belong to the CCC (Cuban Council of churches).There is no favoritism that exists towards particular religions and churches which are members of CCC.
 Unlike the past, the unregistered religious groups however experience minimal harassment, repression and official interference. Surveillance of the religious groups is not monitored by the Ministry of Interior. The Catholic Church operates in high freedom and pressure imposed by the Cuban regime. The church has now gained full access to the media, and it is no longer wrong to train priests or allow the entry of foreign priests in Cuba for work purposes (Nuccio, 1998).

As a result of the discussions on reconciliation, there is no rivalry between the church and the government. The bishops once held a meeting with the Cuban authorities, and asked for help for the young Latin Americans who were studying religion and they got a positive response. The local Catholic Church was given the mandate to mediate between the prisoners and the government. The government of Cuba has continued to relate with the church in a friendly manner more than before, and they have higher expectations since they have a new leader, Raul Castro (Park, 2005).

Cuba has come a long way from its revolution period as far as religion is concerned. From Batistas regime, a lot of changes have occurred in the church, as the relationship between the two changed from bad to worse. Thanks to the popes intervention, the country would still be an atheist society. The Cubans are now hopeful of better relationships with the church, now that the Raul Castro is the head of the Cuban government.