Latin-American Studies

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the aspects which would explain the success of the 1895-1898 Cuban war of independence as against the 1868-1878 insurgency. It is quite clear that there were demographic and economic factors which would explain the success of the 1895-1898 Cuban insurrection.

Demographic and Economic Factors
Some of the demographic and economic factors were as follows 1) the establishment of a system of free labor (abolition of slavery), and 2) creation of new towns and economic centers. The proces of gradual abolition of slavery began in 1868 without the sanction of colonial law in the rebel areas of eastern Cuba. By 1886, it had produced a system of free labor. The way that slavery ended also made the threats of race war ring hollow. Without slaves and without the perceived dangers of their emancipation, arguments about the necessity of Spanish rule as a guarantee of social stability and economic prosperity lost their basis. This was never evident prior to the 1868-1878 Cuban insurrection. By 1890, Cuba was on the verge of another insurrection, which, later proved successful.

Demographic factirsm, such as the increasing proportion of Spaniards in the Cuban population helped further discredit these racialized arguments. In 1862, census showed .that the white population outnumbered the black population, constituting 54 of the population. Two decades later, this widened to 68. Between 1882 and 1892, almost 100,000 Spaniards traveled to and stayed in Cuba. The influx of Spanish laborers may have helped to ease the process of dislocation that was inherent in the emancipation process.

The success of the 1895-1898 Insurgency can also be credited to the 1890 economic crisis. The emancipation problem in cuba coincided with an economic crisis. Therefore, those slaves that returned to their former masters plantations could not necessarily count on jobs. Therefore, those Planters also had to contend with new competition from cane and beet sugar producers. Spanish authorities worried that the presence of all of these unpaid workers created a breeding ground for banditry.

Prior to 1868, the centralized nature of the sugar economy integrated long-term costs associated with economic crisis. Plant owners could easily replace losses by employing more slave labor. In the 1890s, however, this was not possible, as about 80 of slaves in the country were emancipated. In short, during the 1895-1898 Rebellion, former slaves were free to join the ranks of farmers and the working class.

The creation of new towns and other economic centers also added fervor to the later Cuban revolutionary war. The new towns provided the rebels with unprecendented supplies throughout the war. This was not possible in 1868 since the Cuban economy was at its primordial state. Note that after 1878, there was a surge in urbanization and economic development. This fostered the creation of economic towns.

Political Factors
In order to fully develop the historic course of the Cuban insurrection, there is a need to analyze its immediate and indirect causes. The sugar economy of Cuba was highly centralized. In the 1850s, intense competition resulted to increase in beet sugar production, general decline in sugar prices, and regional recessions. Given the dependence of the United States on Cuban sugar, a sharp recession in the United States occurred. The Civil War, however, deeply depressed US demand for sugar from Cuba. This hurt the Cuban economy.

Plantation owners looked to the Confederacy with hope and frustration. Cuban planters wanted Cuba to be annexed to the South in order to protect the institution of slavery. But as the Civil War progressed, Union forces steadily advanced toward Confederate territories. The surrender of Confederate forces under General Lee at Appomattox Court House ended all hopes for annexation.

In Spain, Queen Isabella was expelled from the throne. The ratification of the 1856 Constitution brought the liberals to power. However, in less than a year, the liberal movement was shoved out of Madrid. When the conservatives came back, they resurrected the Constitution of 1845. The important provisions of the document were as follows 1) Church properties would be protected from unwarranted sequestrations, 2) Roman Catholicism would be recognized as the only religion in Spain, 3) the Catholic Church would have control over all education, private and public, and 4) government funding for religious orders. The Catholic Church though was a weak institution in Cuba because it was generally associated with colonial rule. The Church was never supportive of the abolition movement. In general, the Church presented itself as an agent of the colonial government  an institution opposed to the ideals of the common class. This was in contrast with the Church in Mexico, where the clergy were the main opponents of colonial rule.

When the 1868 rebellion started (also known as the Ten Years War), Spain was in chaos. In 1866, one of the military generals (one of Isabellas lover), mounted a military coup against the royal court. The coup though failed. The rebellion in 1868 in Spain preoccupied the military in Spain, and therefore preventing Spain to deal with the insurgency in Cuba. This allowed the insurgency in Cuba to have some space.

The 1868 rebellion however was doomed to failure. Neither the Spanish nor the revolutionary army could decisively win the war. A significant portion of the population moved to safer towns and cities. The Spanish weakened the rebellion by launching preliminary offensives which dispersed Cuban forces and eliminated rebel supply lines. The Spanish targeted the supporters of the revolution, destroying homes and farms of rural families. Napoleon Arango, a Spanish diplomat, wrote a powerful treatise on negotiation. He explained that negotiation and reform are necessary instruments for attaining peace. Rebellion or insurgency always leads to anarchy and tyranny. The Spanish used Arangos treatise to convince the rebels to surrender. In addition, the Spaniards offered freedom to slaves who orchestrated the surrender of twenty rebels.

But, there was a growing moral issue within the revolution itself. Most of the insurgents were colored troops, ex-slaves. Cespedes once wrote that the revolution was doomed to failure if the various factions within the revolutionary army would quarrel over governing ideologies and social conduct. Some members of the Revolutionary Assembly wanted a Cuba ruled by creoles. Other wanted the creation of a bipartisan Congress.

But one factor decided the outcome of the revolution. The once discipline Cuban Army was reduced to shambles. Desertions, immorality, and indiscipline destroyed the morale of the army. The Spanish Army on the other hand was well-equipped and disciplined. A series of offensives were launched against Cespedes forces in eastern Cuba. Estrada Palma, the President of the Republic of Arms was captured by the Spanish in 1877. Negotiations for peace started on February 1878 in Puerto Principe.

The outcome of the Ten Years War was different from the result of the 1895-1898 War of Cuban Independence. The War of Independence succeeded because

Fundamental changes were instituted in Cuban society. Slavery was abolished. Former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class. The number of tenant farmers rose considerably. Those opposed to Spanish rule found support in former slaves

The Cuban economy was becoming more and more dependent on the United States. Jose Marti, the future leader of the revolution, even lobbied the United States Congress to annex Cuba. In essence, perception of US support encouraged rebels to increase their strength and number

Wealthy Cubans supported the war because it would dislodge the Spanish from important sectors of the economy. This self-centered stance toward the revolution though was very helpful, as wealthy Cubans bought large supply depots for the rebels

Finally, direct US intervention in Cuba encouraged Cuban rebels to directly take the fight to the cities. Rebels captured important towns and cities even before the arrival of American forces in the port of Havana.
Unlike the 1868-1878 War, the War of Independence was fully supported by the majority of Cubans. Indeed, after 1898, Cuba was ready to become a young nation in the Caribbean.