Latin-American Studies

Latin America refers to a geographical region in the Americas which is under a vast use of the Romance languages. The Romance languages are those which have a common stock, Latin. Some of the countries herein also speak French. As opposed to what many think of Latin America as a small region, the area is so huge, spanning about 21,069,501 kilometers squared. This means a lot. First, that Latin America cannot be wished away in world politics, international affairs or in the pursuit of the American interests is well attested by the fact that Latin America claims 3.9 of the earths surface, or more specifically 4.1 of the earths land. At the same time, the population of Latin America according to the 2009 estimates now hits the 569 million mark.

This above is a contrast to the insinuations made in the public sector about Latin America being dispensable in the US interest and world politics.

Historical Facts about Latin America 
According to Marston (345), contrary to what many in the United States believe, vis--vis the media, the economic, political and ecological integration of Latin America can be traced back to 500 years. This is as far as the Spanish and Portugueses invasion into the area is concerned. It is the capturing and subduing of the indigenous empires such as the Aztecs and the Incan in a very inhuman manner which paved way for the antithetical stance Latin American countries adopt towards the US and its Allies (Skidmore and Smith, 2005, 75).

As opposed to how the Americans and US media houses know it, it must be noted that these indigenous societies were already full fledged with their own political, religious and economic culture. As a matter of fact, the area remained full of silver and gold so that the Spanish crown was overtly concerned with exploiting these values. To achieve these feats, the Spanish crown charged his administrators to these ends, while using the conversion of the masses into the Roman Catholicism to thwart or undermine the prospects of any resistance. With the accentuation of time, the Spanish crown had already possessed the land in Latin America and turned the inhabitants thereof into slaves in their own land (Marston, 357).
 
Interesting facts on Latin America 
Because of selective journalism in the US, at the mention of Latin America, Hugo Chaves belligerence and bellicose anti-US political stances come to the average American mind. However, the truth is that Latin America houses the worlds biggest forest and rivers, thereby being a host to many animal and plant species. Wipe away Latin America, and a deathblow one has delivered to biology and its sub-disciplines.

To Morley (2000, 40), It is most interesting to note that the worlds largest forest, the Amazon, is located in Latin America, particularly, Brazil. The forest is reputed to have the widest range of biodiversity since it is a wet tropical forest. Fact has it that wet tropic forests sustain most specie-rich biome. This makes the forest have the most species, compared to forests in Africa and Asia. This biodiversity also comes through the fact that the Amazonian forests cover the largest tract of land as a rainforest in the Americas. Out of all the species known to man, a tenth must come from the Amazon. This is as far as both the flora and the fauna are concerned.

Specifically, the Amazon shelters approximately tens of thousands of plants, 2.5 million species of insects, about 2,000 animals and birds. At the moment, at least 3,000 fish, 40,000 plant species, 1,294 birds, 428 amphibians, 427 mammals and 378 reptiles have undergone scientific classification and taxonomy in this same forest. In about the same interesting wavelength, Amazon is reputed to house one in five of the worlds birds. As scientists would have it, out of the 128,843 of the worlds invertebrate species 96,660 species come from Brazil alone, due to the Amazon forest.  

The uniqueness the Amazon forest bequeaths Latin America unrelentingly continues when takes the plant species into consideration. Scientists estimate that within one square kilometers, there are over 150,000 higher plants species and 75,000 different trees. Generally, one square kilometer in the Amazon rainforest may contain 90,790 tones of living plants. Up to the present, it is estimated that 438,000 plant species of both social and economic interest have already been registered within the region. As this is not enough, many more species remain to be catalogued.

Of a particular instance, the Amazons green leafy plant areas are known to vary by about 25 owing to the seasonal changes. It is well known that the leaves therein expand during dry seasons with the sunlight reaching its optimal temperature. The leaves then abscise during the cloudy wet seasons. As was deliberated upon in the Kyoto Protocol, in this sense, these fluctuations help nature or the environment strike the delicate balance of carbon critical for photosynthesis and respiration.

Again, it is through selective journalism that one would conjure in his or her mind concerning the Amazon, total serenity and absence of alarm. On the contrary, the Amazons beauty and wonder is complemented by its nature which can be seen to be characterized by oxymoron. This is because, the Amazon is known as home of the hazards predatory creatures such as anaconda, jaguar and the black caiman. In the tiny streams trickling their way in the Amazon forests are the electric eels and the piranhas. The electric eels have the potency to produce electric shock with the ability to either stun or kill. The piranhas on the other hand have the ability to bite and seriously injure human beings.

Among the dangers are several species with poison darts, frogs which secrete the toxic lipophilic alkaloid, and other numerous disease-causing vectors and parasites. In the Amazon, are vampire bats which have the ability to spread the rabies virus. To the effect of the above, malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever remain highly contractible in the Amazon area.  

According to Williams (2006, 84), in the same Latin America, is the Amazon River which is also the worlds largest river.  So big is the Amazon that when it rains parts of its banks exceed the 120 miles width. It is because of this that the Amazon is referred to as The River Sea. The Amazon River contains more than 3,000 recognized fish species. This number keeps growing as scientists keep researching. Alongside the Orinoco, the river remains the chief habitat of the boto the Amazon River dolphin, Inia geoffrensis.

According to Skidmore and Smith (2005, 75), this boto specie is the largest river dolphin, having the capacity to grow up to 8.5 ft 2.6 meters. Besides the boto, is the tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis a dolphin specie found in the Amazon basin river and in the South America coastal waters. In the Amazon River is the Amazonian Manatee, a conspicuous mammal which resides in the waters of the Amazonian basin. The piranha in the Amazon River, due to its gregarious tendency congregates in large schools that are formidable enough to attack livestock or even humans at times (Douglas and Sven, 2002, 84).

In particular, it is the Red-bellied piranha Pygocentrus nattereri which has the penchant for attacking humans. 4,000 kilometers of the Amazon River is also a home to the Carcharhinus leucas the bull shark, specifically in Peru and Iquitos. The Arapaima Arapaima Gigas as a South American tropical freshwater fish also lives in the Amazon. This fish can measure up to 4.5 meters and 200 kilograms. Other species present in the Amazon include the Arowana, the Candiru a parasitic freshwater catfish of the Trichomycteridae family, the electric eel and the anaconda.

Latin America is the region stretching from the far north starting from Mexico, to El Salvador, to the Honduras to the French Guyana to the south extending to Brazil, Bolivia, to Paraguay and down to Argentina. The region is rich and poor in many ways. From their economic diversity to social diversity, to political diversity to ecological diversity. The Latin Americans has ecological diversity supporting bioprospects, for new medicine and products for commercial uses. They have the payment for environmental services a unique program paying the local people in their efforts of protecting the environment in efforts of conserving the environment. Again they are paid under the Kyoto protocol to reduce the greenhouse emissions (the Kyoto protocol 342).

This region is indeed old and young at the same time. They are old by the standard of nationhood. They were colonized and conquered by the Spanish and the Portuguese in 1492 creating new social order in domination and intermingling between the Europeans, the Africans and the indigenous communities that included the Indians. The region is young in that it got independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule in the 19th century an thus young making the region uniquely young and old (Smith 3).

Latin America has had stable times both tumultuous and stable times in her history. Ranging from political coups, political violence, armed movements, social revolutions have characterized the tumultuous times of the region with economic persistence has been the peace for instance in Mexico 1910, Bolivia with the traditional society standing united. But this has come with an exception of Cuba continuing to pursue her socialism up to date (Skidmore 5).

This region has wonders that always amaze with independence and dependence at the same time. Sovereignty by 1830 of all nations with exception of the Caribbean basin was a culmination of nationhood but this was jeopardized by penetration of the British, the French and the United States. With political weakness following the invasion by these outside influences, power became ambiguous only having limited effect with much of decisions by their leaders interfered by the Europeans and North Americans.

The Latin America is interestingly prosperous and poor in the sense that its a treasure of natural resources ranging from gold and silver during the ancient times and today coffee for instance in brazil, petroleum ores, sugar and soy beans. Mothers without hope, children without food, workers without jobs summarizes the famous saying beggar atop a mountain of gold, what a shock making her citizenry poor and vulnerable but with the image of endless wealth. So fascinating is this poor rich region (Smith 7).

Latin America remains a paradox to understand. Spanish language is spoken everywhere, with exception of brazil, the region covers a vast variety of geographical area with sharp differences in physical features for instance, the tropical forest of Amazon  basin, to the arid plains of Mexico and to the Andean mountain ranges stretching the full length of western south America. In addition, the region has a vast variety of people from the poor to the rich, illiterate to learned people, the wealthy entrepreneurs to the street beggars all in different racial groups including the Indians, the whites and the African immigrants (Skidmore 3).

Analysts describe this region in different theories depicting the differences political, economic and social
structures over different times. Its held economic growth would generate social change thus more developed politics. This would spin change from rural to urban bringing changes in values, moderation, prosperity and stability. But harsh reality is that economic growth brought inequality.

Over the years, from the 1960s to date a lot has changed with elected governments, economic prospects generated by pressure from international creditors and need to overcome financial crises like Mexico in 1994, brazil in 1999 and Argentina in 2001. This makes the region to have the most interesting scenarios for travelers to the Latin America.

Latin American is blessed with numerous physical features that include the tropical forest of the Amazon basin. The Amazon basin which host Amazon forest the largest in the world covers more than eight countries and is said to be the source of more than one fifth of fresh water flowing on the planet earth. You can not miss one out of ten world known tree species in this luxuriant forest, although not all plants and animals that live in the forest are known because of the expansive nature of the forest making some areas inaccessible.

More than sixty per cent of the forest is contained within Brazil, followed by Peru with 13 per cent and small section in Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana. The forest covers almost half of the planets rainforest and as result in 2008 it was nominated as a candidate to one of the new Seven Wonders of the World. It is feared that due to the massive deforestation taking place in the region, fifty five per cent of the forest could be gone by the year 2030 (Douglas and Sven, 8). Its a rooming disaster not only for animals and plants that are contained in the forest but for the whole world.

Historians suggest that the forest was formed during the Eocene era and it has been in existence for more than 55 million years (Morley, 40). The forest is believed to have spread out across the continent as result of wet climate that provided for moist and warmth. For quite long time the forest remained free of savanna vegetation, however climatic changes allowed savanna regions to extend into the forest. As time went by tremendous changes happened with the forest covered region. In the mid Eocene era, the Amazon basin is believed to have been slip in the middle allowing water on the eastern side to flow into the Atlantic ocean while the west water into Pacific ocean. Later as the Andes ranges appeared a larger basin was created. Archaeological evidence suggests that, the first humans to inhibit the basin settled in the region at least eleven thousands years ago.

As the largest wet tropical forest of the world, it biodiversity is non comparable. Since this forest is home to close to one out of ten known plants and animals species, it has the largest collection of animals and plants than any other wet forest around the globe. The forest is home to million of insect species, more than forty thousands species of plants and several mammals and birds species. Scientist estimates claim that presently there are 75, 000 types of trees of trees and hundred thousands species of higher plants.

Today the aesthetic, economic and climatic value of the forest is under threat of extinction due to rapid rates of deforestation taking place. The main caused of concerting the forested land to non-forest land is the human settlement and agricultural development of the land (Williams). During the mid 20th century interior access of the forest was restricted and the forest remained dense and land close to the forest was used for cultivation of food crops. Prolonged cultivation of the farms next to the forest rendered the soil infertile and as result due to the colonists inability to control their field farmers moved to clear new areas. Since early 1990s the basin has lost more than half a million square kilometers of its forest covered land. With the present rate of deforestation it is estimated that the forest will be reduced by 55 per cent.  

Latin America is home to a wide diversity of people some of whose roots can be traced back to Africa and Western Europe. That most countries in Latin America are classified as either developing or underdeveloped is not in contention. That, however, must not be construed to mean that Latin American countries, and their people, are insignificant in world affairs. In fact, Latin America is home to the worlds largest water tower (the Amazon basin), a booming beef industry, a flourishing sugar industry, a world-renown musical history, and immense mineral resources. Although most of what is known about the region begins with the arrival of European explorers (and later, colonizers), the region has a much longer history.

History of Latin America
The term Latin America only came into use in the 19th century in what observers have referred to a something of a compromise (History World). To this day, Latin America comprises countries which were colonized by the Spanish. There is however a significant exception pertaining to the colonial history. Brazil, one of the largest and fastest growing economies in the region, was colonized by the Portuguese. The region could thus not be referred to as Spanish America as that would exclude Brazil. The region thus came to be referred to as Latin America as both Portuguese and Spanish, the main languages spoken in the region, are Romance or derived from the ancient Latin language. The European colonizers brought Roman Catholicism which is still the pre-dominant religion in the region.

Prior to the arrival of the European explorers, the region known as Latin America today was inhabited by indigenous communities among them, the Maya, Aztec, Chibcha and the Inca who had inhabited the region for decades and who had established developed advanced social structures and their history and genetic make-up are still the foci of much interest to historians (Resendez  Kemp 284)..

Christopher Columbus became the first European to set foot in South America in 1492. The debate over Columbus first stop in the Americas continues to this day, with historians believing his first stop to have been one of Grand Turk Island, Plana Cays, Samana Cay or San Salvador. Although Columbus voyage to the New World is still regarded as one of the worlds most significant voyages, what remains unknown to many is that Columbus discovery of the New World was a devastating failure on the part of Columbus, and seamen and explorers he commanded. Columbus was the overall-in-charge of three ships christened, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. The former two were captained by Vicente Yanez Pinzon and Martin Alonso Pinzon respectively (Minster).

Columbus had sought funding from the Queen of Spain, with the promise of finding a shorter route to China, which would give Spain easier access to Chinese silk and spices for which the Chinese were known then. Instead, Columbus found himself in unknown lands.  After exploring the modern-day Bahamas, Columbus and his team set sail again, reaching Cuba about a fortnight after they arrived at the New World. His next stop was Haiti, which Columbus hastily renamed La Espanola. Disappointed at being unable to find China, and the new Sea route, a distraught Columbus started his return journey to Spain, carrying his only findings some trinkets and a few bedraggled natives from Hispaniola (Minster). Columbus hoped that Queen Isabela would encourage slave trade and he was greatly disturbed when the queen declined to support slave trade with the New World.

The Mighty Amazon
At the heart of the region lies one of the most significant geographical and world-renown features on the earth surface the Amazon basin. The basin is covered by a dense rainforest which covers parts of Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guyana. The wide diversity of plant and animal species within this rainforest is arguably the widest of all world ecosystems.

While any visitor to Latin America would obviously know or have heard about the Amazon forest, few know that the rainforest has been a permanent feature of the Amazon basin since the Cretaceous, meaning that the forest has existed for the last 55 million years (Maslin, Malhi, Phillips  Cowling 477). Over the years that Native Americans have inhabited the basin, the Amazon forest has been their chief source of food, forst products, protection and insurance, and ecological services including attracting rainfall (Sheil  Wunder 9). The pace at which the Amazon basin has been losing the rainforest cover due to deforestation is alarming. The destruction of the rainforest has been blamed for rapid die-offs of many species some of which were only found in the forest. It is therefore in the interest of the entire world that the Amazon forest must be conserved.

Colonial History
The arrival of Christopher Columbus to the modern-day Latin America marked the beginning of the path towards the colonization of the region. Shipbuilding technology was by then growing rapidly and not long after his first voyage to the region, Columbus set sail for the second voyage in 1493. Unlike the first voyage which had involved three ships, he had 17 ships and 1500 men for the second voyage. Columbus and his team of seamen visited the region several times later, managing to arouse the attention of other European seafarers and traders who also visited Latin America in search of gold and land. Soon, the Spanish gained control of the new Latin American colonies with Mexico City as the headquarters of the viceroyalties of Mexico and Central America, and Lima as the headquarters of the viceroyalties of Andean and southern South America (Marston 343).

The aims of establishing the colonies were to exploit gold, silver and other precious minerals, and convert the native population to Roman Catholicism. A fifth of the profits from mining went, as a rule, to the Spanish crown. The colonies were supposed to be self-sufficient and were supposed to make use of available land and labour (Marston 343).

The impact of Europeans and their consequent colonization of the region had some devastating effects on the indigenous populations.  Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, the Americas had remained isolated from all other people and the inhabitants had developed immunity only for the diseases which were prevalent in the region then. The Europeans however brought with them diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox against which the Native Americans had absolutely no immunity. Experts have estimated that as much as 75 percent of the Latin American population perished in the 16th century as a result of the epidemics (Marston 344). The European colonizers did not bring just diseases into Latin America they also introduced new animals, pests and crops including wheat, cattle, sheep, pigs, sugar, bananas, cotton, coffee and rats which were carried on the European ships (Marston 344).

Spain retained its rule over the larger part of the region until 1620 when Britain, France and Germany engaged Spain in bitter wars over the control of trade between Europe and the Americas. These wars, and widespread smuggling perpetrated by merchants and landlords who resented Spains stringent controls on taxation and trade, worked to weaken Spains hold on the region (Morston 345). The beginning of the end of Spanish colonization came in 1808 when the French commander Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Spain. A series of bloody revolts inspired by the French and American revolutions shook the core of the colonizers hold leading to the independence of many of the Latin American countries. The independence however had its adverse effects on the Latin American economies. Reluctance of foreigners to invest in the region, the brain-drain occasioned by the return of Spaniards to Europe, and civil wars contributed to the economic decline of the Latin America (Marston 347). Another problem was that the leaders who succeeded the European colonizers, rather than build new structures, retained the colonial hierarchies and biased institutions (Palti 601). With political stabilization in Latin America, the economies of Latin American countries have grown significantly.

Many white Americans do not know enough about Latin America, when they should. Why should they learn more about Latin America and how can they do it Because Americans have economic and political interests vested in this vast region. Latin America is a large trading partner of the U.S. and many of its upheavals and political activities directly affect and undermine U.S. foreign policy (Skidmore and Smith 2005, 3). Let us take a shortened route to learning more about Latin America- by breaking some of the myths that oversimplify its history, culture, geography, and demographics.

Myth 1. The Diaspora always comes from Latin America to the United States and Europe. While many Latin Americans migrate to these developed countries, Diasporas originally happened in this flow- from these Northern countries to the South Americas. In the first place, if we go back to history, the Spanish and the Portuguese invaded Latin America, and from there, they came in steady throngs to live in more temperate climates in Latin America, especially in Argentina (Marston et al. 2002, 356). In addition, six million Italians and Spanish also migrated to Argentina and even some regions such as Patagonia are known for Welsh culture and immigration (Marston et al. 2002, 356). Diasporas existed as a rush toward and, not only out, of Latin America.

Myth 2. Latin Americans are all Hispanics. This is a good example of hasty generalization. Just because some of the Hispanics we know come from Latin America, it does not mean that Latin Americans are all Hispanics. When the Europeans came to Latin America in the 1500s, they radically changed the demographic profile of the region through interracial marriages, cohabitation, and rape (Marston et al. 2002, 355). To get our history right once more, the history of colonization ushered a history of colonial discrimination. It was bad enough that the white Europeans discriminated against the Africans and Indians in Latin America, it was even worse that they created a hierarchy of discrimination among the people they discriminate. It may come as a surprise for some people that the racial mixes had been so diverse that they were given different names mestizo refers to a person of mixed white and American Indian ancestry, mulatto pertains to a Spanish and African mix, and zambo refers to an Indian and African mix (Marston et al. 2002, 355). Even the Spanish discriminated against their own mixed blood and divided Spanish children into peninsulares, or those born in Spain, and criollos, or those born in the Americas and so many Spaniards sent their pregnant wives for their children to be born in Spain and enjoy a more exalted social status in the future (Marston et al. 2002, 355). So no, not all people from Latin America are Hispanics.

Myth 3. The European colonizers decimated the Latin American population with the force of the sword. Indeed, the white colonizers killed many natives, as Bartolom de Las Casas, a sixteenth century Dominican priest, narrated in his writings. In reality, the newcomers did more than that. They brought European diseases with them which broadly killed the natives, who had not developed resistance to these diseases (Marston et al. 2002, 344). European diseases such as smallpox, influenza, measles, and other illnesses are estimated to have killed around 75 percent of the Latin American population (Marston et al. 2002, 344). Hence, the colonizers also decimated colonial Latin America through their diseases.

Myth 4. The only language of Latin Americans is Spanish. This is an inadequate sentence that neglects the existence of diverse indigenous languages. The most widely-used native languages are Quechua in the Andean region, which 13 million people uses, English Creole and French Creole in the Caribbean used by 10 million people, Guaran in Paraguay used by 4.6 million people, Aymara in the Andes used by 2.2 million, Mayan in Guatemala and southern Mexico used by 1.7 million people, and Nahuatl in Mexico used by 1.3 million people (Marston et al. 2002, 363).

Myth 5. Latin America is an easy country to understand. First, Latin America is not a country, as it is composed of twenty-six (26) large and small nations, with diverse political systems that include socialist, democratic, and military dictatorship states (Skidmore and Smith 2005, 3). Its historical conflicts also challenge the idea of simplicity in understanding Latin American history (Knight 1992). Palti (2009) even explored the fight between ideas about history, as revisionist historians sought to write about a different history for Latin America. Second, Latin America is categorized economically as a developing country, with its own nuances, because many of its states are interdependent economies (Skidmore and Smith 2005, 3). Third, Latin America is both young and old. It is young because of its high fertility rate and young population, but it is also old because many countries obtained political independence from Spain and Portugal more than a hundred years ago (Skidmore and Smith 2005, 4). Fourth, Latin Americas development has not followed other developed countries economic models, because of diverse economic, political, social, religious, and cultural conditions (Skidmore and Smith 2005, 7-10). The complexity of its development as a region is difficult to define, especially when those who analyze it come from a Western perspective and do not have a deep understanding of the distinctive histories and cultures of each nation and Latin America, as whole, and how each nation in it relates to one another in economic, political, social, religious, and cultural levels (Langer 2004 Marthoz 2000 Skidmore and Smith 2005, 7-10). Langer (2004) complained that Latin American history is often framed in relation to European history, using its viewpoints and values (394). Latin America, however, is not merely a history acted upon by the West, because in many ways, it has acted upon world history also (Langer 2004, 395).

Myth 5. The Amazons traditional groups are obstacles to development. Now this is a hard sentence to prove or disprove, because of the big words of development and traditional groups. For the sake of definitions, development here will be defined as the sustainable form of development that many traditional groups have long espoused. In some Western films, the Amazons traditional groups are native people who are described a backward and against development (Young 1999). Many scholars mostly agree that traditional groups who conform to conservation of nature cannot possible be obstacles to sustainable development (da Cunha and de Almeida 2000, 325). In this framework, when traditional groups are seen as promoters of low-impact environmental practices and cultural leadership, then they are partners to development (da Cunha and de Almeida 2000, 335).

Myth 6. The Amazon is a beautiful and scary river, period. Though both are true in different levels and understanding, the Amazon is much more than a river Within Brazil, the importance of the Amazon in defining national identity is immeasurable (Young 1999, 24). It is the worlds largest river basin, is almost the same size as the U.S., and encompasses 36 of Brazils territory (Young 1999, 24). For Brazil and even to Latin America, it is a place of dreams, culture, and history.

Latin America evokes both romanticism and fear, depending on personal views and biases about it. For non-Latin Americans, they should put their knowledge about Latin America in the right perspective by understanding that it is not a homogenous single country, but a region that is mixed in history, race, culture, economies, politics, and so much more. To simplify Latin America and its basic institutions, history, and even its future, will not do justice to its rich history and heritage.

Cultural awareness refers to the knowledge of nurtured behavior through social transmission in a society. The culture of a society is characterized in their way of life through its art, language, thoughts, social activities, and spirituality, physical and social interactions between members of that society.

Different societies have different cultures that are unique from each other. The present way of life, draws a lot of foundations from culture of a society. In South America for instance, their culture may be similar across nations however historical events has shaped the culture of individual nations differently.

For instance, a country like Venezuela has been described as a fascinating country rich in culture and diversity and yet has one of the most stable national identities among the South American states. The name Venezuela was coined by its colonizers (Spanish) from original name Venice which was given to it by one of the Christopher Columbus voyagers named Ojeda in 1499. The country population is composed of indigenous populations who have intermingled with Spaniards, African, Latin American and other European immigrants. The demographic distribution classifies these populations into four major groups. The mestizos or pardos who comprise of up to 67 , the European 21 , the black 10 , Indians 2 , but there is a tendency of a localized distribution in all these groups (Hewa, 12).

The official language in Venezuela is Spanish. Being a former colony of Spain, the language has continued to have a common use in official transactions. English is however acquiring momentum as the second official language due to the international integration and interaction of the country with other nations where English is widely accepted as an international language for business and cultural purposes (McCoy, Smith, 45). This momentum has even infiltrated into classroom level where some schools are using English as a blend in a bilingual curriculum.

Social relation between members of society is deeply influenced by the social stratification of caste system. Even though the caste does not receive an official recognition, the system has placed most of the political and economic influence in the hands of a few elites. This top caste of elites is made up of long-established white population which puts members of European ancestry at a greater opportunity to control the economy of the state. On the other hand, this system places other members especially immigrants from African, Latin America, and Indian origin at a helpless position due to this racial and color division. However, this stratification has not gone without adverse effects like the social crisis which were experienced in 1990s.

Venezuelans are known to have pride in their country and traditions. The national flag is a strong identity of this republic which is held with respect and high admiration. Simon Bolivar is widely recognized as a national figure for his roots in Venezuela. He is accredited for his heroic deeds that led to liberation of South America. His actions are comparable to those of George Washington of United States of America. The country has four public holidays during which the national flag is flown outside all public buildings and public houses. Public parades are also held during commemoration of independence and pubic holidays. The Bolivars birthday is celebrated on July 24th, independence day on June 24th, and the day of the race on October 12th. Venezuelans are fun loving people and among their most celebrated festivals is the carnival. Among the costal settlements, this celebration entails wide-ranging series of parties with a lot of drinking, parade dancing with drums (Harold, 23). At this time, dancers are known to wear sexy costumes and employ seductive dancing styles.

Over 90  of total populations of Venezuela are Roman Catholics. However, other regions are still gaining popularity. The constitution guarantees freedom of worship. This has allowed some indigenous people to continue practicing their traditional ways of worship. Many Venezuelans are however known to practice a symbiotic religious practice referred to as Culto of Maria Lonza. She is usually portrayed as a witch or healer with a company of a black henchman and an Indian chief. The three are known to as the Three Powers. There is also a wide fellowship of Dr. Jose Gregorio Fernandez who was a catholic priest and was miraculous healer. He used to operate and heal native people while they were asleep which created a wide following. There exists a notable number of people who follow Jewish religion, and other members of Islamic faith.

The religious rituals and cultures are guided by the faiths of a population. With most of the people following Roman Catholic faith, most of the religious rituals are held during church masses on Sundays. However, the rituals connected to the Maria Lonza engage the chief practitioners falling into stupor through rhythmic music, dancing, drinking of rum, and painting their bodies using dyes of different colors (Canache, 42). During these rituals the practitioners foretells what is in the present and the future of a requester.

National culture has received full support of the state through arts. The government has been avid in supporting music and literature as a vessel that has a great strength in promoting and preserving culture. In Caracas for example, there is a symphony orchestra that receives full public financing. The orchestra plays classical genres and mostly the nationalistic tunes of joropos. The government has strived to preserve the national heritage of Venezuela by helping to maintain a number of Museums which houses natural artistic productions. Among them there is the Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Natural Science and the Museum of Colonial Art which preserves the past heritage for future generations. In the field of performing arts, Venezuela is the home to one of the top salsa music bands in the world under the leadership of Oscar DLeon even Mariah Carey is known to have roots in Venezuela.

In terms of etiquette, Venezuelans interact freely which is clearly portrayed in their extroverted manner which makes them very social and outgoing people. They converse loudly and openly. Their customary mode of greeting for men of equal status is composed of a strong handshake. In most cases it is not hard to find women giving kisses on the cheek when greeting each other. Use of body language and gestures is also very common when one is making a point. Some common sign languages are not acceptable such as pointing someone using a finger is re4garded as an impolite and offensive way of reference (Hewa, 16). It is advisable for one to point another person using his mouth.  

In conclusion, the social stratification has played a big role in determining the relationship between members of Venezuela in public arena. The government has taken a big role in conserving and increasing awareness of its culture among the citizens. Being a less formal society, it holds a high level of freeness during communication. The society has a high regard for social morals and better understanding of their culture is very essential for one to feel comfortable within Venezuelan population.

The border, a space which designates the separation between two entities, also provides the space for the synthesis of two different entities. An example of this can be seen in the case of immigrants from other countries who choose to cross the border in search for a new mode of living. Cynthia Bejarano, in her book entitled Que Onda Urban Youth Culture and Border Identity provides an analysis of the events that take place in the process in which a group of people chose to transcend the divisions determined by borders. Bejaranos text presents an ethnographic study which depicts the identity formation of Mexican-American residents who reside near the border. In her book, she argues that the formation of ethnic identities is based on different practices that are determined by the geographical location of a people. Bejaranos text thereby places emphasis on the politics determined by geographical boundaries in the creation of a peoples identity.

Within this context, what follows is an extrapolation of Bejaranos arguments for linking geographical boundaries in the identity formation of a group of individuals. This extrapolation will focus on several aspects of Bejaranos argument, with a specific emphasis on the politics of identity along the Mexican Border, the aspects that influence the identity development of Latinos along the border region and the influence of identity construction on the lives of the Latino youth in contemporary American society. The focus on these aspects will show how Bejarano emphasizes the role of geo-politics in the creation of identity. Although such a role has already been theoretically recognized in other texts, the importance of Bejaranos argument lies in the statistical data she provides in order to support her claims. It is important to note that Bejaranos ethnographic study was initially aimed at understanding the youth disturbances in Altamira High School. Due to the school officials recognition of the link between the rise in the diversity of ethnic groups in the school and the occurrence of ethnic andD  or racial conflicts, they commissioned several scholars to perform a study that will quell and end the occurrence of these conflicts. One of the scholars commissioned for this study was Bejarano herself.

Bejarano s argument takes into account her four-year ethnographic study of Latino identity at Altamira High School. In her discussion, it is important to note that she refers to Latinos to further diversify themselves into Chicanos, Mexicanos, or both (Bejarano 6). This distinction is important since it shows how Latinos perceive the extent in which their relationship to their homeland affects the creation of their identities. Bejarano states,

(Y)outh identities are created and directly influenced by the complexities of the geopolitics and so-ciocultural implications (e.g. culture, language, social groups and social hierarchies, internal colonialism, racesD  ethnicities, and citizenship and residency issues) circumscribing their lives. (Bejarano 3)
In the case of Latino s, the influence of these factors can be seen in the largely unspoken and unexplored divisions among youths of Mexican descent whose border identities are located along a wide continuum of Mexicanness (Bejarano 4).

Bejarano captures this continuum by utilizing the framework of Border Theory. According to the Border Theory, the border functions both as a material and mental space (Bejarano 24). In its material form, the border serves to signify the space that separates two regions (i.e. two countries) (Bejarano 25). On the other hand, in its mental form, the border serves to signify two different perspectives of reality (Bejarano 25). It is important to note that there is a relationship between the material and mental form of the border. This relationship is apparent as both serve to represent one another. In the case of Bejaranos study, this is apparent as the material space that the border represents pertains to the separation between Mexico and the United States. As opposed to this, the mental space that the border represents pertains to the cultural beliefs and values of both countries. Within this context, Border Theory argues that as individuals transcend one space for another space, there occurs the transference of beliefs from one space to another space. This transference of beliefs leads to the synthesis of two different cultural beliefs and practices.

In the context of Bejaranos study, the occurrence of the union between two contrasting beliefs can be seen in the various ethnic identities that have resulted from the Mexicans passage to the United States. The politics behind the formation of Latino identity is thereby determined by the Latinos position in the border. An example of this can be seen as Bejarano points out the self-made distinctions followed by Chicanos and Mexicans. Chicanos are less connected to Mexico as they attempt to characterize their practices as a union between American and Mexican practices (Bejarano 33). As opposed to this, Mexicans refuse to follow American practices as they choose to adhere to the practices in their homeland (Bejarano 33). Other manifestations of this can be seen in the following

(1) (T)he creation of unique MexicanaD  o and Mexican-American D ChicanaD  o youth cultures through the use of customs and trends creating distinct styles that reinforce the borders between the two groups of young people (2) MexicanaD  o and Mexican-American D ChicanaD  o students  use of languages to define who they are and further distinguish themselves from one another (3) the social stratification of adolescents into an informal hierarchy at school  (4) the various ways citizenship is conceptualized by ChicanaD  os and MexicanaD  os and also what U.S. citizenship, Mexican citizenship, or permanent residence signifies to these adolescents . (Bejarano 6)

Cultural customs and trends influence the formation of identity as certain groups form their own practices. In the case of the Latinos in Bejaranos study, this can be seen as Chicanos deviate from the Mexicans by following the Hip-Hop style (Bejarano 38). This distinction shows the formers adherence to the American trend as a means of differentiating themselves from their fellow Latinos. In terms of linguistic practices, another example of this can be seen in the Chicanos creation of Spanglish. Spanglish, a combination of Spanish and English, is a factor in identity formation as an individuals fluency in English indirectly manifests the amount of time that he has stayed in the United States. In the text, Bejarano claims, Chicanaswill use more popular American youth sayingsTheir language selection serves a twofold purposeto communicate in their natural languagesand to speak exclusively within their group (Bejarano 50).

    The Elian Gonzalez affair refers to a controversial custody case of a Cuban boy known as Elian Gonzalez. Elian had managed to survive a boat accident which resulted to the death of his mother as they attempted to get into the US illegally in November 1999. This controversial case brought to light concerns about the US immigration and family laws, the US-Cuba relations the Cuban American community in relation to economic, social and political issues in Cuba (Elian Gonzlez Biography, 1993). Elian Gonzalez was traveling with his mother to the US but the failure of the boat and poor weather conditions led to the capsizing of the boat. The accident left all the passengers dead except Elian and two other survivors. After Elian and the survivors were rescued, the US Immigration and Naturalization Service (INC) placed the boy under the care of his paternal relatives who lived in Miami. Although the relatives sought to keep Elian in the US, Elians father, Juan Miguel Gonzalez, demanded that the boy return back to Cuba. This resulted to a custody row that had the father and the paternal relatives compete for the custody of the boy. The Cuban American community, the media, political leaders and some US bureaucracies got entangled in the row. After heated debates in the political circle and a legal battle in the early part of 2000, Elian returned to Cuba with his father. This paper will discuss the Elian Gonzalez affair and how politics, the media, US bureaucracies, the US judiciary and the Cuban American community got entangled in the affair.

The custody battle concerning Elian Gonzalez dominated the United States and Cuban media during the early months of 2000.Elian Gonzalez, a five-year old Cuban boy had left Cuba in company of his mother and his mothers boyfriend for the US in search for a better life. Illegal immigration of Cubans into the US was promoted by the   desire to seek a better life in the US. As compared to Cuba, the US seemed to provide the immigrants with better social and economic conditions. The Cuban economy had been experiencing problems since 1980s due to the US embargo that it imposed on Cuba in efforts to pressure Castros administration to embrace democracy and contain communism (Eire, 2003).To the US, Cuba had proved to be a threat to US security during the Cuban Missile crisis. As a result many Cubans, the US presented them with new opportunities to improve their lives and provide their children with a good life. This was no exception for Elians mother who took the risk of traveling in a small   boat to get to the US. Although many illegal immigrants managed to get to the US  without being apprehended, other who were arrested were deported back to Cuba .It is believed that the failure of the  boat engine  coupled with poor weather led to the capsizing of the boat.Unfortunately,Elians mother and other  passengers  drowned to death except for  Elian and two other survivors who  managed to float at sea on an inner tube for hours before they  were rescued by fishermen who handed them over to the US Immigration  and Naturalization Service officials(INS).The rescue of the Elian  and the two survivors received the attention of the media, marking the beginning of the entanglement of the media in Elians affair. After receiving treatment in the hospital, Elian was handed over to Lazaro Gonzalez, his paternal great uncle who lived in Miami. Together with the other relatives, Lazaro expressed their interest in keeping the boy in the US.However, this was rejected by Elians father and relatives back in Cuba. The events that unfolded after this attracted great attention of the media on the case. For about six months, the custody row became the focus of the US as well as Cuban mass media. Reports and debates in the media focused on the political and social issues that surrounded the matter.

Although the attention of the media on the case began with the rescue of the boy from the sea, the great attention of the media on the case during the early period of 2000 was increased by the involvement of the US and Cuban governments, political personalities as well as the Cuban American community in the affair. The public sympathized with Elian who had been rescued clinging onto an inner tube off the coast of Ft.Lauderdale in Florida on November 25, 1999.As the custody battle between Elians father and relatives in Miami continued, various members of the public differed on which was the best option for the well being of the boy. While some considered it logical to have the mothers dream of providing Elian with a good life in US by having the boy live with his relatives in Miami, others were convinced that it was good for the boy to live with his biological father. However, the sending of a note by the Cuban government to a US mission in Havana to request for Elians return to Cuba attracted the attention of the media and the public in the case. Elian became the centre of debate in the public and the Cuban American community especially in South Florida. The affair on the surface was about family and immigration laws in the US while beneath the surface, it became a political crisis between the US and Cuban governments. In relation to law, the affair triggered   heated debates on how the case would have been handled effectively. For instance, the question of whether Elian should stay in the US or return back to Cuba became the issue of discussion in the public. The disagreement between Elians father and his relatives in Miami made the case even more interesting. Although Juan Miguel Gonzalez, Elians father, made a request that Elian return to Cuba, the request was met with great resistance from his relatives who were taking care of Elian. Together with a legal team and some influential members of the community, the relatives on January 7 filed a request for political asylum of Elian. The family wanted Lazaro Gonzalez, one of   Elians relatives living in Miami to be granted custody as the boys guardian. This disagreement made it necessary for the media to continue focusing on the case.

The legal wrangling that was witnessed about the Elian Gonzalez case involved numerous bureaucracies within the US government. The bureaucracies included the Immigration and Naturalization service, the State Department and the Attorney Generals Office. These government agencies were involved in the case in efforts to resolve the custody issue .For example, because the Elian issue was transformed into legal dispute, Elians relatives living in Cuba intervened in the matter. For instance, Elians grandmother and mother in two different cases flew from Havana to the US in efforts to have Elian returned back to Cuba. Disagreements between Elians father and relatives living in Miami led to negotiations with the Attorney General which were unsuccessful. Although the 11th Circuit Court judge had granted emergency custody of the boy to Lazaro Gonzalez, the rejection of a family court jurisdiction by Attorney General Janet Reno in January 12 made it necessary for the Gonzalez family living in Miami to file a case in the federal court.

After the US government in January 28 requested for the dismissal of Elian relatives federal lawsuit, the US District judge on March 9 dismissed the political asylum lawsuit. As a result, Julian Gonzalez meeting with the Attorney General Janet Reno in April 7, 2000 resulted to an announcement that the US officials would transfer the custody of the boy to his father. Despite the fact that in April 19 the 11th US Circuit Court of Appeal blocked Elians return to Cuba after granting a request that had been filled by his Miami relatives, Elians reunion with his father was witnessed on April 22nd after US federal agents in a pre-dawn raid seized Elian from his Miami relatives home (A Chronology of Elian Gonzalez saga, 2010). The raid was criticized by Elians Miami relatives and their supporters. Many supporters belonged to the Cuban American community in South Florida who considered it better for Elian to remain in the US rather than   return to Cuba.  On the other hand, some Americans held the opinion that Elians father should have been given custody of Elian .Eventually, Elian and his father returned back to Cuba two months later after court producers were completed. They returned home on June 28th, few hours after the US Supreme court rejected efforts by Elians Miami relatives to keep him in the US. These events indicate how the US judiciary was involved in the Elian Gonzalezs affair.

The attention of the media in the case was unprecedented and it was clear that no incident of illegal immigration had attracted such attention from the media. This is because the Elian Gonzalez affair was transformed into a morality play where the public took sides, the US- Cuba relations were affected and Cubans in Cuba and those in the US were divided. For example, the case led to emotional charge that fueled emotional reactions among citizens in Cuba and US. Public opinion polls results that focused on how the case should have been handled were presented in the media. Differences between Cubans in Cuba and those in Cuban American society was evident when Cuban Americans complained on how the issue was handled. Back in Cuba, many citizens supported the returning back of Elian in the country. While the return of Elian Gonzalez to Cuba was celebrated by huge crowds at Jose Marti International Airport, members of the Cuban American community who supported Elians relatives living in Miami criticized how the case was handled. Divisions in the American society about the affair was also witnessed when  some Americans across  the nation supported the reunification of Elian and his father while others argued that Elians stay in the US would fulfill his mothers dream of providing him with a good life in the US. For those who supported reunion of Elian and his family back in Cuba, the members of the Cuban American community showed fanaticism when they made attempts to oppose and dismiss the US law during the legal battle witnessed in relation to Elians custody.

The Elian Gonzalez case was an indication of the absence of coordination structures as well as the presence of power vacuum at the US high level decision making especially in the National Security Council. For example, the case confirmed the fragility of the bilateral relations structure. Although the Elian case seemed to be a clear cut case of parental rights and immigration policy, it became a major issue of discussion during political debates when some US politicians in Congress and those in the presidential campaign trail got involved. In addition, the Elian affair resulted to the splinter of the Cuban American right wing with the hard-line members forming the Cuba Liberty Council (CLC). The split of the leadership of the Cuban American Florida community into CLC and the CANF (Cuban American National Foundation) defined demographic change that affected their political opinion. The Cuban American National Foundation had been supported by successive US administrations for decades and was expected to exercise  virtual veto power over the US policy towards Cuba (Fernndez,2000).The departure of Elian therefore left the right-wing Cuban exiles demoralized when their goal to have him remain in the US  failed. For example, after Elian and his father left for Cuba, only a small number of protesters from the community came out to protest as compared to the large number of the protesters that had been recorded in April when the INS agents raided the Miami relatives residence to take Elian away. Politics in the US and Cuba were influenced by the huge campaigns that were coordinated and held by anti-Castro Miami-based Cuban exiles who aimed at preventing the return of the  boy back to his father in Cuba. The Elian affair was also a clear indication of how irrational and intractable the US-Cuban relationship had become and the entanglement of a young child in politics that was beyond his control has been compared to the Operation Pedro Pan (Torres, 2003).

The case exposed deep divisions among the Miami residents due to the fact that although some residents especially those from the Cuban American community protested in favor of having Elian stay in the US, others agreed that the boy had the right to return to his father in Cuba. The affair also confirmed how measures that have been put into place to improve the Cuban-American relations worsened the situation. In addition, the events that unfolded during the affair showed how the US policy toward Cuba has become vital for the interests of groups such as the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF). The organization had become an influential Cuban American and Latina lobby organization in relation to foreign policy and political issues in Cuba and the US. Established in 1981, this group of Cuban American promotes the Cuban American interests.

Elians individuality during the affair became a representation of both political and social agenda. For example, Elians story brought to the forefront issues of the US  Cuba sanction policies and immigration. The Elian predicament also shed light on perpetual issues that have existed in the history of US immigration and the immigration policy in the US that had some short comings. Furthermore, the Elians plight expressed an identity crisis of the Cuban-American community in Florida. This identity gave great importance to the Cuban American community around the family, communism, nation and religion framework. Although the custody battle of Elian was just a fair simple matter, it was transformed into a complicated matter by the presence of multinational identities and politics. The lasting effect of the Elian Gonzalez affair was that as the society develops new cultural custody landmarks, the leadership had failed to develop new social and immigration policies. In relation to economic matters, Elian Gonzalez case showed how the second generation of Cuban Americans has differed with the parents generation on economic and political issues in Cuba (Weiser, 2002).

    The Elian Gonzalez affair sparked a political battle in the US after a custody row attracted great attention from the Cuban American community, the US and the Cuban American governments, US bureaucracies and immigration and family law policy makers. The events that unfolded following the rescue of Elian Gonzalez ignited a custody crisis that ended with Elian Gonzalez return to Cuba with his father. During this time period, many Cubans were moving into the US illegally in search of a better life. The Cuban American community also got involved in the case, with many protesters demanding that the boy remain in the US while other citizens across America supported the granting of custody to the father .Although the Miami relatives of Elian and their supporters considered the case to have been handled poorly, others supported the granting of child custody to Elian Gonzalezs father.