Latin-American Studies

December 1996 was the historic month for the Guatemalan army and guerrilla fighters, as they signed the peace accord that brought to an end the bloodiest and longest civil wars ever held in the history of Central America. The conflict continued for thirty six years and according to the 1999 report of Truth Commission sponsored by United Nations, it left in its wave more than 200,000 dead or disappeared, with majority of them being Maya Indians. Ninety percent of these killings were caused by the atrocities committed by army, paramilitary organizations and the state. Greg Grandin presented these horrific details with his lucid eyes in his book The Blood of Guatemala. Grandin was an historian at the Duke University and worked as a consultant for the Truth Commission. In his tenure, he gained considerable experience of the Guatemalas past including role played by the Indians in the social and economic formation of the place.

There is no doubt of the fact that several scholars interpreted and produced explanations on the Guatemalas four decades of violence and repressions in the Latin America. Some of these studies went back as far as to the nineteenth century and found varied distinctions and differences that arose between Ladinos and Indians during that crucial phase of nation building. In these studies are shown the ways liberal Ladino had exploited the peasants and workers to establish the export-oriented economy and how Indians resisted them. For these researchers, Ladinos were the exploiters while the Indians were exploited and subjugated population but Greg Grandin produced different interpretations. His study goes beyond the conventional ethnic lines to show us the histories at both the local as well as national level uncovers the nationalistic endeavors of both Ladino and Indian and helps in explaining the structure of power that ultimately resulted in the war in Guatemala in 1950s.

Grandin examines the Guatemalan history in the most chronological way showing events of each day as well as most important phases of the Guatemala past like the late colonial period, riots of 1786, cholera epidemic of 1837, the rule of the conservative regime under Jose Rafael Carrera, the transformation towards a liberal rule after 1871, the establishment of export economy on the basis of coffee plantation in the post-1871 period and ultimately the decade of democracy i.e. from 1944 to 1954. Democracy decade was the period when peasants and workers as a result of reforms raised their unprecedented voices in the country. Grandin shows how before 1944, Ladino state, just like others, viewed Indians as obstacles of modernization and only believed integration as the way for perusal. Grandin study comes to an end at the point in 1954 when anti communist forces in support of the CIA dethroned the elected president, Jacobi Arbenz, and thus initiated forty years of civil war.

The book deciphers history of Kiche elites in the city of Quetzaltenango from the colonial period towards the mid-twentieth century- these elites or principales, as called by Grandin, strived to assert their position for prestige and power at Guatemala and surprisingly were able to retain the same for more than two centuries. They were able to exert their power and dominating position inspite of many challenges like Bourbon Reforms, a shift of power from conservatism to liberalism and coming of the coffee plantations during late1800s.  From another aspect, Grandin is also able to redress much wider issues like what went behind the solidification of the state power, the nationalistic trends of both the Ladinos and Indians and their existence in Guatemala and the role played by Kiche elites to embrace both the modern world of Ladinos as well as traditional world of Indians. They welcomed all the new developments like construction of railroads etc, sending children to schools, showing photographs of themselves, dressing in traditional dress, constructing of Indian monuments, and holding Mayan beauty pageants. Kiche elites claimed that both the Indian peasants and workers were required to erect a modern and coffee producing country thus they were able to develop a distinguished Indian nationalism. More importantly, local resources were controlled by principales and also Indian population was progressively proletarianized by them as a result Ladino elites were depended on them. Grandin opines no doubt both Indians and Ladino elites were impressed by Kiche elites but in the process this produced an apparently contradictory effect ethnic identity deepened while state power increased (p. 54). It is within this historical social and economical climate, Grandin makes us realize what all that went behind the civil war.

As long as Kiche elites were acting as a medieval men between the Indians and a state, there was a peace in Guatemala but within ten years 1944-1954, the power structure altered, as democracy became the norm and peasants and workers gained power.

Acquisition of lands by the Indian commoners in 1950 on account of the agrarian reforms caused direct threat to the Kiches position. In direct reproach, they joined anti communist groups, who were strictly against the reforms. They broke all the ties with the Indians creating a further divide and making grounds for the leashing of civil wars.
 
Gradin did the ground breaking work by giving us well researched study of all the events that became the root cause of the war and the effects of the same. It also opened yet again scope for further studies and more arguments but there is a need to go further into the position and role played by Kiche. But overall it is a good historical piece which has looked beyond the conventional thoughts and boundaries that go deep within the Guatemalan history. He has also linked elites and commoners, Ladinos and Indians and showed how the actions of the principales at the community level had deeply impacted both the Indian commoners as well as nation state. He has also illustrated how local people and the state were bound and were connected to each group while maintaining their individual identity. He has also effectively dealt with the questions arisen amidst the ethnic and class relations, relations between the nation and the state, identity and nationalism. Overall it is a good anthropological as well as historical study.

Juan Manuel de Rosas was born on March 30, 1793 to one of the richest families in the Rio de la Plata Region. His original full name was Juan Manuel Jos Domingo Ortiz de Rozas y Lpez de Osornio but later change his family name from Rozas to Rosas after her mother accused him of stealing some of their cattles. He worked as an arriero1 at a young age in the fields and then married Mara de la Encarnacin de Ezcurra y Arguibel. Later on, he built a meat-salting plant that flourished in a short period of time. His business was so successful that ranch owners created laws to terminate his plant. He then lived as a gaucho2 after establishing his own ranch. In 1820, a civil war surfaced then Rosas formed a company of gauchos, earning their respect and becoming a hero because of his actions to reinstate piece in his country. He became the governor of Buenos Aires from 1829 to 1832. In spite of the peoples support to Rosas, he did not run for a second term while still having his status as a strong leader. He was then offered absolute power in 1835 and created a militia that tortured and killed anyone who opposed him. During the end of his regime in 1852, some of his trusted officials turned their backs on him and formed an army to overthrow Rosas. After the defeat at the Battle of Caseros, Rosas lost his powers and was exiled to United Kingdom until his death on 1877.

During the regime of Rosas, the Platine region (Argentina and its neighboring countries Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil) was sort of in turmoil. Juan Manuel de Rosas desired to put into reality an old Argentine dream, to restore the past Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Achieving this dream would make Argentina the center of a dominant and powerful republican nation. Rosas scoured the region to search for people who also have his ideology. He became engrossed even to the neighboring countries domestic politics to gain their trust, thus making them allies. To further get their attention, Rosas, in the long run, financed rebellions and civil wars.

The first term of Rosas as governor of was from 1829 up to 1932. His administration was deemed as one of the most successful in terms of his capability to preserve the harmony among Buenos Aires and the other countryside areas. He was supported by former dictators Facundo  Quiroga and Estanislao Lopez. During his years out of position, Rosas formed a military movement whose goal was to exterminate the indigenous or aboriginal people located in the south of Argentina. They annihilated ethnic groups of nomadic horse-mounted Indians. Because of his actions, he became a man with an astonishing character meeting the requirements to the manners and appeal of the gauchos. He gained a limitless reputation in his nation, thus giving him dictatorial powers.

During the time he was not in position, the country was a total mess so the people reinstated him as the governor. This time, he was different in terms of his policies and actions than during his first term. He became a dictator who necessitated the support to his Federalist government to all of the people. During the time of Rosas second term, citizens are forced to put on the red Federalist insignia. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento described in his book Facundo Or, Civilization and Barbarism The red ribbon is a materialization of the terror that accompanies you everywhere, in the streets, in the bosom of the family it must be thought about when dressing, when undressing, and ideas are always engraved upon us by association3. The streets of Buenos Aires were full of Juan Manuel Rosas pictures. To further implement his will and actions, Rosas created a secret organization of spies and thugs supervised personally by Rosas. The militia was called mazorca4 and its roles on Rosas regime were to put the dictators enemies and critics to jail or exile to other countries, torture and ultimately murder them. Repression of the media was present.

Anyone who opposed the tyrant Rosas was tortured, murdered, or exiled. Some the dissidents during Rosas regime were  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiDomingo_Faustino_Sarmiento o Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Domingo Faustino Sarmiento,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiJosC3A9_MarC3ADa_Paz o Jos Mara Paz Jos Mara Paz, HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiJuan_Bautista_Alberdi o Juan Bautista Alberdi Juan Bautista Alberdi,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiBartolomC3A9_Mitre o Bartolom Mitre Bartolom Mitre,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwindex.phptitleSalvador_M._del_Carrilactioneditredlink1 o Salvador M. del Carril (page does not exist) Salvador M. del Carril, and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiEsteban_Echeverria o Esteban Echeverria Esteban Echeverria. On the last fractions of his tyranny, several trusted officials of Rosas betrayed him and formed an army to put him out of position. One of these was General Urquiza, the governor of the Entre Rios province. Much further, the other provinces as well as Brazil and Uruguay joined the movement to take the throne out of Rosas. Then, the last battle participated by Rosas was his defeat at the Battle of Caseros. He lost his war and was forced to exile to the United Kingdom until he died in 1877.

Life under the cruel regime of the dictator Juan Manuel Rosas was violent. Sarmiento wrote his book Facundo to attack the rule of Rosas. Through his book, Sarmiento introduced education and civilized class to contradict Rosas action of brute force and total political power to get rid of his critics. Rosas had the ideology of recreating the Rio de la Plata, but through the course of his goals, he became cruel and selfish that gave the consequences to the people he was suppose to serve.

The relationship of Latin America with the rest of the world has always been interesting and complex because the countries belonging to this part of the world are viewed and treated uniquely by the rest of the world, even by their neighbors. How and when all this began cannot really be pinpointed at once. History only shows that the development of Latin America is very different from the other parts of the world. The countries from this region reached their current status because of the hardships they all had to go through in the past  The history of Latin America is interesting because it is strange and romantic but it is not easy (Rippy 4). And yet, despite its image of bordering to chaos at most times, Latin America survived to become one of the biggest and most influential cultures today.

Sadly, the perception or knowledge that the world today has of Latin America is very limited. Many only see the proliferation of intermixed races, the poverty experienced by most of the population, or the wars caused by several unstable governments. They do not understand the trials, changes, and successes that the Latin Americans had to go through. Because of this, they do not clearly see the depth and future potential of Latin America to be one of the powerful nations. Visitors of Latin America should see that the present situation of the region today is a result of hard-earned experiences that have been tested by time repetitively.

Some of the famous icons of Latin American culture would be their unique music, their festivities, the image of the Latin lover, the wars and revolutions every now and then, and even Che Guevara. But there is more to Latin America than just these icons. Even the initial impression we have of Latin America is not enough to really justify its rich past. The perception of many people is clouded by the stigma that Latin America is a poor and chaotic part of the world. These icons that people remember even have their own significant stories to tell. As Skidmore points out in his article, when we move beyond these caricatures, which have their own truths to tell, we find Latin America to be a complex region. Much of the recorded story of Latin America goes all the way back to the Colonial Era when Christopher Columbus arrived in some countries that are part of this region. Their arrival in the 1500s signified the beginning of changes at the Latin American countries. The Spanish expanded and administered the new Latin American colonies through the vice royalty system, the largest scale of Spanish colonial administration (Marston 343). Latin America had been under the power of conquering countries for many years, but was part of the first countries to liberate themselves when Spain began to weaken in the 1800s. Latin America was among the first to claim a national identity for themselves, and despite facing economic decline today, they were able to rise again after separating from their colonizers.

Also, there are regions in Latin America that were never subjected to the full control of the colonizing countries either because of their remoteness like the Amazon or because of local resistance like some parts of the Andes (Marston 345). Up to the present, the marvels of the Amazon continue to be one of the wonders of Latin America. But the Amazon also became the home to many of the slaves that escape then. So if you are planning to visit Latin America, you should see its richness in diversity and that every part of the region, be it the cities, the countryside, or the deep forests, has its own tales to tell and unique contributions to the nation and the world.

Just by observing the Latin American societies today, one could very well see that their lives portray the definite contrasts among those who are the rich, privileged, educated, and powerful compared to those who are the poor, illiterate, and powerless, living in underprivileged circumstances. The population of Latin America is also composed of intermixed races as a result of colonialism. Colonialism changed the demographic profile of Latin America through intermixing of European and Indian peoples and the importation of slaves from Africa to the Americas (Marston 355). The mixing of races is an effect of the colonization era, and the product of mixed ancestries is one of the most unique qualities of Latin Americans.

Two of the most explored realities in Latin America are its political problems and economic struggles. Latin America has suffered a lot of chaos and financial crises and until today, we still see these problems threatening to recur. Many see these problems as two separate things when in fact they go hand in hand. The countries of Latin America also continuously face political instability, marked frequently by dictatorship (Skidmore 5). Each country has their own versions of problematic governments and civil wars. These problems cause investors to be dissuaded and progress to be stalled. Latin America is wealthy in terms of natural resources such as silver, gold, petroleum, gas, copper, iron ore, coffee, sugar, and soybeans. But their poverty rate remains so high because of mismanagement in governance and because money was centralized to the powerful families. In fact, dictatorship became very frequent in the 1960s and 1970s. Many perceived these events as effects of the uncultured lifestyles of Latin Americans. This is not entirely correct because it was necessary for the authoritarian government to carry out such policies that require being hard on their people in order to have a more established economy (Skidmore 9). Yet, because they greatly suffered, the Latin American citizens, especially those who are below the poverty line, rebelled against the dictatorships and communistic practices. This had been a bloody and chaotic part of Latin American history however, it should be noted that it was done for liberty. By 1980s, Latin Americans sought to end military dictatorship and open state policy to the influences of democratic participation (Keen and Haynes 508). Hence, when it reached the 1990s almost all countries of the region, with the exception of Cuba, have established democratic and people-elected governments already.

It has not been a smooth-sailing trip for the Latin American countries, and here lies their strength in survival and building themselves. Latin America has improved immensely since the colonial period. In most Latin American countries, the combination of order and progress led to the rapid growth of the primary export sector with clients from Europe and the United States (Foweraker, Landman, and Harvey 15). But the Latin American countries still have a lot to improve on as the threats of disorder are still very prominent.

Today, Latin America has already come a long way. At present, they are already on the steady rise to economic stability. While the region is still far from attaining the level of Asian and Eastern Europe countries, competitiveness is on the rise among South Americas ABC countries  Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (Padgett). The growing economy of these three countries has helped Latin America as a whole, despite the financial crisis experienced by the world.

With all factors considered, one must realize at once that the things prominently known about Latin America are limited or too simple. Every Latin American country has its own rich stories to tell. The history of the region has paved way for all its unique characteristics and appeal. Many of the traditions and cultural practices have been preserved in Latin America, despite the heavy migration that is being practiced there. Every fact is significant, and every event of history is worth learning about and rediscovering again.

Dozens of young Latinos interact on the Mexican border forming the basis for which the identity formation among Mexican-origin border youths is studied. Such study was done in a concise way by Bejarano, which is revealed in his book. The book captures the labyrinths these youths navigate to finally shape their identities. Along this border, Latina and Latino youths find life already challenging and the borderland is indeed a place that presents continual affirmations and contradictions about identity. The association between three components of ethnic identity embedded in affirmation, exploration and resolution as well as factors related to family neighborhood and individual characteristics are the fundamental questions explored by Cynthia Bejarano. Based on this book, this paper seeks to examine the politics of identity along the Mexican border, the factors that influence identity development for Latina youths  along the border region and how the identity constructions influence the lives of Latino youths in American society.

Primarily, the identity building constructions of urban Latinas and Latinos youths living in the borderland along the border of the US-Mexico are dominantly explored. Bejarano better define the factors that lead youths to identify themselves with the various ethnicities encompassed within Latinas, Latinos, Mexicans and Americans. Accordingly, these varying identities ultimately results in the social stratification of the adolescents into a hierarchy created through discrimination and internal colonialism (Bejarano, 2007).

This book reveals identity politics and how it influences young people as forms of communication and the cultural space that they occupy in the environment of schooling. According, by showing that identities are created and subsequently influenced, the politics of identities in this milieu encompass the complexities of geopolitics and socio-cultural influences. The fundamental question to be answered is that politics of identity borders the unexplored divisions among the youths whose identities are located along a wide continuum of Mexicans.

In addition, the primary constitution of identity resides in the topics such as the creation of distinct styles that reinforces the differences between Latinos and Mexicans. Bejarano (2007) points out that the use of language further distinguishes these identities and determines how youths in the cosmopolitan region of the border view themselves and subsequently shape their different identities.  It is plausible to argue that, the element of social stratification perpetuated by internal colonialism and other processes, form what is fairly called politics of identity along the Mexican border.

These and several other issues along the border are shown to aggravate how the Latinos in the border ethnically identify themselves as Mexicans or Chicanos. Essentially, this approach helps them to explain their entire spectrum of identity. In contrast, identity is largely portrayed as a reflection of educational as well as immigration experiences where the complicated relations of adolescent youths along the border shape their identities as a result of the evident and available identity making process. The ultimate glimpse into the present politics of identity provides adequate information about the diversity among the youths as well as their constant efforts to define, create and shape their identities as a result of the available social cultural structures (Bejarano, 2007).

Apart from the politics of identity, there are a host of factors that influence the development of identity for Latino youths along the border. To begin with, the role of the social policy is the fundamental factor that influence the development of identity. These youths at the borderland comprise of the second generation migrants and thus, their efforts towards identity formation are predetermined by their social connectedness and the entire role that social policy plays in a society. According to Bejarano (2007), behind identity development, there are factors that are positively associated with adolescent ethnic identity of the Latino. As a result, the family ethnic socialization is thus directly associated with resolution and exploration as variables suggested to determine the image a Latino youth adopts within the forces of association between family ethnic socialization, ethnic affirmation based on neighborhood characteristics and parental behaviors.

Given that Mexico shares its border with America, the unique link between this border relationship facilitates the development of unique identities. The economic development, the cultural infrastructure of the region and the political force contributes to the development of certain mindsets among the youths living along the border, thus affecting their identity development. Furthermore, the eminent disparities in terms of access to and utilizations of the social amenities are a force factor behind the development of identities along the border. In certain instances, these disparities are intra cultural, intercultural, from the same racial background and from the same family (Bejarano, 2007).

Lack of language skills, is another pointer to identity development. It therefore follows that poor understanding of values and inadequate education forms the principal impediment to the concept of well-being. This focuses on the cultural wellbeing of the youth that leans in particular to the comparative insights from Latino, thus the global and educational perspective on social experiences influences how they develop their identities.

The constructions of identity through socialization affects affect the lives of the Latino youths in American society. Accordingly, the male-ism in the Latino- American boys, begin with  the cultural expectation that young boys will grow into being men and although there is also some explicit expectations that girls will be respected, they are obliged to be more submissive and obedient. With regard to this, the identities constructed by individual youths affect the beginning of conceptions of man and woman. Bejarano (2007) points out succinctly that the concept that these youths will of course have other images about themselves and life, there concepts characterizing male behavior as well as personality, has the potential of influencing the Latino boys to be socialized in corrective matters that are harsher than girls thus their own sense of self worthiness is brought to their attention.

The sharp dichotomization of gender roles in some segments of Mexican community are apparently an additive to the misunderstanding that Latino in the American society may entirely be affected. Typically, boys may learn to settle matters by fighting with others in the society and this conceptualization is geared towards fighting to win. On the other hand, this interactional effect of identity construction solidifies hyper-masculinity and in some sense, a cultural image of male honor, respect and specific gender roles is clearly drawn. The constructions of identities lay foundations for the striking behavioral change among Latino youths in the American society. To some extent, initial acts of defiance occur silently but later become an open challenge and a shift in the Latino youth males identity begin to manifest. This characteristic shift may vary in conception and intensity considering their geographical location, with a more pronounced shifts occurring in locations that are farther away from the border.

To recap, the data drawn from Bejaranos book builds on theories of youth identity transitions. The entire book maps a process of negotiated identity among incarcerated young men. From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that patterns of identity transition are by patterns of self synthesis, self preservation and situational self transformation. The argument afore highlights the efforts attempted by the youths to retain a positive view of the self, amid very challenging environment .As such, the notion of cultural citizenship becomes an alternative way of accepting the Latino culture .As such, cultural citizenship recognizes the cultural richness these individuals bring to a nation. The question of identity is viewed within the spectrum that goes beyond the legality of citizenship and the obscures the derogatory stereotypes that have perpetuated separation and conflict.

Latin America refers to a geographical region in the Americas which is under a vast use of the Romance languages. The Romance languages are those which have a common stock, Latin. Some of the countries herein also speak French. As opposed to what many think of Latin America as a small region, the area is so huge, spanning about 21,069,501 kilometers squared. This means a lot. First, that Latin America cannot be wished away in world politics, international affairs or in the pursuit of the American interests is well attested by the fact that Latin America claims 3.9 of the earths surface, or more specifically 4.1 of the earths land. At the same time, the population of Latin America according to the 2009 estimates now hits the 569 million mark.

This above is a contrast to the insinuations made in the public sector about Latin America being dispensable in the US interest and world politics.

Historical Facts about Latin America 
According to Marston (345), contrary to what many in the United States believe, vis--vis the media, the economic, political and ecological integration of Latin America can be traced back to 500 years. This is as far as the Spanish and Portugueses invasion into the area is concerned. It is the capturing and subduing of the indigenous empires such as the Aztecs and the Incan in a very inhuman manner which paved way for the antithetical stance Latin American countries adopt towards the US and its Allies (Skidmore and Smith, 2005, 75).

As opposed to how the Americans and US media houses know it, it must be noted that these indigenous societies were already full fledged with their own political, religious and economic culture. As a matter of fact, the area remained full of silver and gold so that the Spanish crown was overtly concerned with exploiting these values. To achieve these feats, the Spanish crown charged his administrators to these ends, while using the conversion of the masses into the Roman Catholicism to thwart or undermine the prospects of any resistance. With the accentuation of time, the Spanish crown had already possessed the land in Latin America and turned the inhabitants thereof into slaves in their own land (Marston, 357).
 
Interesting facts on Latin America 
Because of selective journalism in the US, at the mention of Latin America, Hugo Chaves belligerence and bellicose anti-US political stances come to the average American mind. However, the truth is that Latin America houses the worlds biggest forest and rivers, thereby being a host to many animal and plant species. Wipe away Latin America, and a deathblow one has delivered to biology and its sub-disciplines.

To Morley (2000, 40), It is most interesting to note that the worlds largest forest, the Amazon, is located in Latin America, particularly, Brazil. The forest is reputed to have the widest range of biodiversity since it is a wet tropical forest. Fact has it that wet tropic forests sustain most specie-rich biome. This makes the forest have the most species, compared to forests in Africa and Asia. This biodiversity also comes through the fact that the Amazonian forests cover the largest tract of land as a rainforest in the Americas. Out of all the species known to man, a tenth must come from the Amazon. This is as far as both the flora and the fauna are concerned.

Specifically, the Amazon shelters approximately tens of thousands of plants, 2.5 million species of insects, about 2,000 animals and birds. At the moment, at least 3,000 fish, 40,000 plant species, 1,294 birds, 428 amphibians, 427 mammals and 378 reptiles have undergone scientific classification and taxonomy in this same forest. In about the same interesting wavelength, Amazon is reputed to house one in five of the worlds birds. As scientists would have it, out of the 128,843 of the worlds invertebrate species 96,660 species come from Brazil alone, due to the Amazon forest.  

The uniqueness the Amazon forest bequeaths Latin America unrelentingly continues when takes the plant species into consideration. Scientists estimate that within one square kilometers, there are over 150,000 higher plants species and 75,000 different trees. Generally, one square kilometer in the Amazon rainforest may contain 90,790 tones of living plants. Up to the present, it is estimated that 438,000 plant species of both social and economic interest have already been registered within the region. As this is not enough, many more species remain to be catalogued.

Of a particular instance, the Amazons green leafy plant areas are known to vary by about 25 owing to the seasonal changes. It is well known that the leaves therein expand during dry seasons with the sunlight reaching its optimal temperature. The leaves then abscise during the cloudy wet seasons. As was deliberated upon in the Kyoto Protocol, in this sense, these fluctuations help nature or the environment strike the delicate balance of carbon critical for photosynthesis and respiration.

Again, it is through selective journalism that one would conjure in his or her mind concerning the Amazon, total serenity and absence of alarm. On the contrary, the Amazons beauty and wonder is complemented by its nature which can be seen to be characterized by oxymoron. This is because, the Amazon is known as home of the hazards predatory creatures such as anaconda, jaguar and the black caiman. In the tiny streams trickling their way in the Amazon forests are the electric eels and the piranhas. The electric eels have the potency to produce electric shock with the ability to either stun or kill. The piranhas on the other hand have the ability to bite and seriously injure human beings.

Among the dangers are several species with poison darts, frogs which secrete the toxic lipophilic alkaloid, and other numerous disease-causing vectors and parasites. In the Amazon, are vampire bats which have the ability to spread the rabies virus. To the effect of the above, malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever remain highly contractible in the Amazon area.  

According to Williams (2006, 84), in the same Latin America, is the Amazon River which is also the worlds largest river.  So big is the Amazon that when it rains parts of its banks exceed the 120 miles width. It is because of this that the Amazon is referred to as The River Sea. The Amazon River contains more than 3,000 recognized fish species. This number keeps growing as scientists keep researching. Alongside the Orinoco, the river remains the chief habitat of the boto the Amazon River dolphin, Inia geoffrensis.

According to Skidmore and Smith (2005, 75), this boto specie is the largest river dolphin, having the capacity to grow up to 8.5 ft 2.6 meters. Besides the boto, is the tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis a dolphin specie found in the Amazon basin river and in the South America coastal waters. In the Amazon River is the Amazonian Manatee, a conspicuous mammal which resides in the waters of the Amazonian basin. The piranha in the Amazon River, due to its gregarious tendency congregates in large schools that are formidable enough to attack livestock or even humans at times (Douglas and Sven, 2002, 84).

In particular, it is the Red-bellied piranha Pygocentrus nattereri which has the penchant for attacking humans. 4,000 kilometers of the Amazon River is also a home to the Carcharhinus leucas the bull shark, specifically in Peru and Iquitos. The Arapaima Arapaima Gigas as a South American tropical freshwater fish also lives in the Amazon. This fish can measure up to 4.5 meters and 200 kilograms. Other species present in the Amazon include the Arowana, the Candiru a parasitic freshwater catfish of the Trichomycteridae family, the electric eel and the anaconda.

Latin America is the region stretching from the far north starting from Mexico, to El Salvador, to the Honduras to the French Guyana to the south extending to Brazil, Bolivia, to Paraguay and down to Argentina. The region is rich and poor in many ways. From their economic diversity to social diversity, to political diversity to ecological diversity. The Latin Americans has ecological diversity supporting bioprospects, for new medicine and products for commercial uses. They have the payment for environmental services a unique program paying the local people in their efforts of protecting the environment in efforts of conserving the environment. Again they are paid under the Kyoto protocol to reduce the greenhouse emissions (the Kyoto protocol 342).

This region is indeed old and young at the same time. They are old by the standard of nationhood. They were colonized and conquered by the Spanish and the Portuguese in 1492 creating new social order in domination and intermingling between the Europeans, the Africans and the indigenous communities that included the Indians. The region is young in that it got independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule in the 19th century an thus young making the region uniquely young and old (Smith 3).

Latin America has had stable times both tumultuous and stable times in her history. Ranging from political coups, political violence, armed movements, social revolutions have characterized the tumultuous times of the region with economic persistence has been the peace for instance in Mexico 1910, Bolivia with the traditional society standing united. But this has come with an exception of Cuba continuing to pursue her socialism up to date (Skidmore 5).

This region has wonders that always amaze with independence and dependence at the same time. Sovereignty by 1830 of all nations with exception of the Caribbean basin was a culmination of nationhood but this was jeopardized by penetration of the British, the French and the United States. With political weakness following the invasion by these outside influences, power became ambiguous only having limited effect with much of decisions by their leaders interfered by the Europeans and North Americans.

The Latin America is interestingly prosperous and poor in the sense that its a treasure of natural resources ranging from gold and silver during the ancient times and today coffee for instance in brazil, petroleum ores, sugar and soy beans. Mothers without hope, children without food, workers without jobs summarizes the famous saying beggar atop a mountain of gold, what a shock making her citizenry poor and vulnerable but with the image of endless wealth. So fascinating is this poor rich region (Smith 7).

Latin America remains a paradox to understand. Spanish language is spoken everywhere, with exception of brazil, the region covers a vast variety of geographical area with sharp differences in physical features for instance, the tropical forest of Amazon  basin, to the arid plains of Mexico and to the Andean mountain ranges stretching the full length of western south America. In addition, the region has a vast variety of people from the poor to the rich, illiterate to learned people, the wealthy entrepreneurs to the street beggars all in different racial groups including the Indians, the whites and the African immigrants (Skidmore 3).

Analysts describe this region in different theories depicting the differences political, economic and social
structures over different times. Its held economic growth would generate social change thus more developed politics. This would spin change from rural to urban bringing changes in values, moderation, prosperity and stability. But harsh reality is that economic growth brought inequality.

Over the years, from the 1960s to date a lot has changed with elected governments, economic prospects generated by pressure from international creditors and need to overcome financial crises like Mexico in 1994, brazil in 1999 and Argentina in 2001. This makes the region to have the most interesting scenarios for travelers to the Latin America.

Latin American is blessed with numerous physical features that include the tropical forest of the Amazon basin. The Amazon basin which host Amazon forest the largest in the world covers more than eight countries and is said to be the source of more than one fifth of fresh water flowing on the planet earth. You can not miss one out of ten world known tree species in this luxuriant forest, although not all plants and animals that live in the forest are known because of the expansive nature of the forest making some areas inaccessible.

More than sixty per cent of the forest is contained within Brazil, followed by Peru with 13 per cent and small section in Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guiana. The forest covers almost half of the planets rainforest and as result in 2008 it was nominated as a candidate to one of the new Seven Wonders of the World. It is feared that due to the massive deforestation taking place in the region, fifty five per cent of the forest could be gone by the year 2030 (Douglas and Sven, 8). Its a rooming disaster not only for animals and plants that are contained in the forest but for the whole world.

Historians suggest that the forest was formed during the Eocene era and it has been in existence for more than 55 million years (Morley, 40). The forest is believed to have spread out across the continent as result of wet climate that provided for moist and warmth. For quite long time the forest remained free of savanna vegetation, however climatic changes allowed savanna regions to extend into the forest. As time went by tremendous changes happened with the forest covered region. In the mid Eocene era, the Amazon basin is believed to have been slip in the middle allowing water on the eastern side to flow into the Atlantic ocean while the west water into Pacific ocean. Later as the Andes ranges appeared a larger basin was created. Archaeological evidence suggests that, the first humans to inhibit the basin settled in the region at least eleven thousands years ago.

As the largest wet tropical forest of the world, it biodiversity is non comparable. Since this forest is home to close to one out of ten known plants and animals species, it has the largest collection of animals and plants than any other wet forest around the globe. The forest is home to million of insect species, more than forty thousands species of plants and several mammals and birds species. Scientist estimates claim that presently there are 75, 000 types of trees of trees and hundred thousands species of higher plants.

Today the aesthetic, economic and climatic value of the forest is under threat of extinction due to rapid rates of deforestation taking place. The main caused of concerting the forested land to non-forest land is the human settlement and agricultural development of the land (Williams). During the mid 20th century interior access of the forest was restricted and the forest remained dense and land close to the forest was used for cultivation of food crops. Prolonged cultivation of the farms next to the forest rendered the soil infertile and as result due to the colonists inability to control their field farmers moved to clear new areas. Since early 1990s the basin has lost more than half a million square kilometers of its forest covered land. With the present rate of deforestation it is estimated that the forest will be reduced by 55 per cent.  

Latin America is home to a wide diversity of people some of whose roots can be traced back to Africa and Western Europe. That most countries in Latin America are classified as either developing or underdeveloped is not in contention. That, however, must not be construed to mean that Latin American countries, and their people, are insignificant in world affairs. In fact, Latin America is home to the worlds largest water tower (the Amazon basin), a booming beef industry, a flourishing sugar industry, a world-renown musical history, and immense mineral resources. Although most of what is known about the region begins with the arrival of European explorers (and later, colonizers), the region has a much longer history.

History of Latin America
The term Latin America only came into use in the 19th century in what observers have referred to a something of a compromise (History World). To this day, Latin America comprises countries which were colonized by the Spanish. There is however a significant exception pertaining to the colonial history. Brazil, one of the largest and fastest growing economies in the region, was colonized by the Portuguese. The region could thus not be referred to as Spanish America as that would exclude Brazil. The region thus came to be referred to as Latin America as both Portuguese and Spanish, the main languages spoken in the region, are Romance or derived from the ancient Latin language. The European colonizers brought Roman Catholicism which is still the pre-dominant religion in the region.

Prior to the arrival of the European explorers, the region known as Latin America today was inhabited by indigenous communities among them, the Maya, Aztec, Chibcha and the Inca who had inhabited the region for decades and who had established developed advanced social structures and their history and genetic make-up are still the foci of much interest to historians (Resendez  Kemp 284)..

Christopher Columbus became the first European to set foot in South America in 1492. The debate over Columbus first stop in the Americas continues to this day, with historians believing his first stop to have been one of Grand Turk Island, Plana Cays, Samana Cay or San Salvador. Although Columbus voyage to the New World is still regarded as one of the worlds most significant voyages, what remains unknown to many is that Columbus discovery of the New World was a devastating failure on the part of Columbus, and seamen and explorers he commanded. Columbus was the overall-in-charge of three ships christened, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria. The former two were captained by Vicente Yanez Pinzon and Martin Alonso Pinzon respectively (Minster).

Columbus had sought funding from the Queen of Spain, with the promise of finding a shorter route to China, which would give Spain easier access to Chinese silk and spices for which the Chinese were known then. Instead, Columbus found himself in unknown lands.  After exploring the modern-day Bahamas, Columbus and his team set sail again, reaching Cuba about a fortnight after they arrived at the New World. His next stop was Haiti, which Columbus hastily renamed La Espanola. Disappointed at being unable to find China, and the new Sea route, a distraught Columbus started his return journey to Spain, carrying his only findings some trinkets and a few bedraggled natives from Hispaniola (Minster). Columbus hoped that Queen Isabela would encourage slave trade and he was greatly disturbed when the queen declined to support slave trade with the New World.

The Mighty Amazon
At the heart of the region lies one of the most significant geographical and world-renown features on the earth surface the Amazon basin. The basin is covered by a dense rainforest which covers parts of Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana and French Guyana. The wide diversity of plant and animal species within this rainforest is arguably the widest of all world ecosystems.

While any visitor to Latin America would obviously know or have heard about the Amazon forest, few know that the rainforest has been a permanent feature of the Amazon basin since the Cretaceous, meaning that the forest has existed for the last 55 million years (Maslin, Malhi, Phillips  Cowling 477). Over the years that Native Americans have inhabited the basin, the Amazon forest has been their chief source of food, forst products, protection and insurance, and ecological services including attracting rainfall (Sheil  Wunder 9). The pace at which the Amazon basin has been losing the rainforest cover due to deforestation is alarming. The destruction of the rainforest has been blamed for rapid die-offs of many species some of which were only found in the forest. It is therefore in the interest of the entire world that the Amazon forest must be conserved.

Colonial History
The arrival of Christopher Columbus to the modern-day Latin America marked the beginning of the path towards the colonization of the region. Shipbuilding technology was by then growing rapidly and not long after his first voyage to the region, Columbus set sail for the second voyage in 1493. Unlike the first voyage which had involved three ships, he had 17 ships and 1500 men for the second voyage. Columbus and his team of seamen visited the region several times later, managing to arouse the attention of other European seafarers and traders who also visited Latin America in search of gold and land. Soon, the Spanish gained control of the new Latin American colonies with Mexico City as the headquarters of the viceroyalties of Mexico and Central America, and Lima as the headquarters of the viceroyalties of Andean and southern South America (Marston 343).

The aims of establishing the colonies were to exploit gold, silver and other precious minerals, and convert the native population to Roman Catholicism. A fifth of the profits from mining went, as a rule, to the Spanish crown. The colonies were supposed to be self-sufficient and were supposed to make use of available land and labour (Marston 343).

The impact of Europeans and their consequent colonization of the region had some devastating effects on the indigenous populations.  Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, the Americas had remained isolated from all other people and the inhabitants had developed immunity only for the diseases which were prevalent in the region then. The Europeans however brought with them diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox against which the Native Americans had absolutely no immunity. Experts have estimated that as much as 75 percent of the Latin American population perished in the 16th century as a result of the epidemics (Marston 344). The European colonizers did not bring just diseases into Latin America they also introduced new animals, pests and crops including wheat, cattle, sheep, pigs, sugar, bananas, cotton, coffee and rats which were carried on the European ships (Marston 344).

Spain retained its rule over the larger part of the region until 1620 when Britain, France and Germany engaged Spain in bitter wars over the control of trade between Europe and the Americas. These wars, and widespread smuggling perpetrated by merchants and landlords who resented Spains stringent controls on taxation and trade, worked to weaken Spains hold on the region (Morston 345). The beginning of the end of Spanish colonization came in 1808 when the French commander Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Spain. A series of bloody revolts inspired by the French and American revolutions shook the core of the colonizers hold leading to the independence of many of the Latin American countries. The independence however had its adverse effects on the Latin American economies. Reluctance of foreigners to invest in the region, the brain-drain occasioned by the return of Spaniards to Europe, and civil wars contributed to the economic decline of the Latin America (Marston 347). Another problem was that the leaders who succeeded the European colonizers, rather than build new structures, retained the colonial hierarchies and biased institutions (Palti 601). With political stabilization in Latin America, the economies of Latin American countries have grown significantly.