Latin-American Studies

    No doubt women made tremendous contribution to the Mexican Revolution and although their support may have received little recognition after the Revolution came to its final end they were the unsung heroes without whose help, the armies may not have made much progress. A few working-class and wealthy women contributed to the Revolution in very professional ways. The womens army referred to as the Villista army consisted of trained doctors and nurses who provided modern and most needed medical services to the revolutionary armies. Other women such as Juana Gutierrez de Mendoza became voices of the Revolution zealously spreading propaganda for the Mexican cause with much boldness. Such women went around encouraging people to support the Revolution. Apart from serving the Revolutionary armies as nurses, propagandists and spies, some of these middle-class women also performed the simple act of posing for the camera with sombreros, rifles and bandoleers of the revolutionary troops actions that may have been overlooked but which spoke out the political purpose that these women were committed to as they sought recognition as Mexican citizens. Yet, it was the anonymous and more common soldier or camp follower popularly referred to as the soldadera who actually made the Mexican Revolution. Throughout history, women had always supported armies as camp followers. But the soldaderas of the Mexican Revolution became an exceptional case because of their unique ability to blend female support services and the masculine duties expected of a soldier. Besides providing domestic services in the camps, they also dressed as men, served in combat, acted as spies and even stole weapons from enemy camps and concealed them in a way that allowed the soldiers from their own camps to escape. Throughout the revolution, these women stood out as symbols of loyalty, standing besides their men for the greater course of the Mexican Revolution (Pilcher 142).

    In the years preceding the Mexican Revolution, educated and upper-middle-class Mexican women had already began penetrating into the public sphere and the possibility of incorporating the political and cultural concerns of women began taking shape. Mexico was changing dramatically and by the end of the 19th Century, a number of Mexican female teachers and journalists began making an impact in the field of publishing by producing newspapers and magazines for a female audience. By the first decade of the 20th Century, women participation had developed into a more political approach especially in challenging the dictatorial rule of Porfirio Diaz as well as supporting working-class women. It was these politically active women who eventually joined different battalions when the Mexican Revolution broke out. The experiences of these women however differed largely depending upon their various Revolutionary leaders or the battalions they were attached to. Although diverse groups of women took part in various ways in spearheading the Mexican Revolution, it was the participation of the uneducated and ignorant soldaderas that became symbolic of women participation in the Revolution.  The soldaderas became part of most of the armies that took part in the fighting during the Mexican Revolution becoming a common feature in both federal and Revolutionary armies (Linhard 34-35).

    The term soldaderas has widely been used to refer to the women who participated in various roles in the battlefield during the Mexican Revolution. Soldaderas originates from the Spanish term soldada which refers to a soldiers pay. Mexico had a long history of armed conflict and soldaderas had been part of the Mexican armies as way back as the conquest period. During this period, Spanish women followed their male relatives in the conquest against the Aztecs and several Indian women became part of both the ally and resistance forces in the Spanish conquest. During the struggle for independence, Mexican women also served in both the resistance and ally armies. After independence, Mexico continued with the old-aged tradition of encouraging soldiers to pay others to provide them with various services. According to the Spanish custom, a soldiers pay was given to another person who would then use it to source food and other provisions for the soldier. Through this tradition, soldaderas became part of various rebellions and wars during Mexicos 19th Century history. But it was the 1910 Mexican Revolution that brought into the limelight the actual participation of women in a rebellion. When opposition against President Porfirio Diaz broke out, Mexican women especially from the lower classes came out in thousands to assist the fighting troops in several of the Revolutionary armies. During the Mexican Revolution, large numbers of women served on the battlefield in various roles  and became part of the various armies that took part in the fighting becoming a common feature in both federal and revolutionary armies. The term soldadera was used to describe these women (Coerver, Pasztor  Buffington 472).

    Soldaderas were also referred to as camp followers, Adelitas or coronelas and became part of Mexicos history until the modernization of the Mexican military after the end of the revolution when most of them were sent away while a few became part of the quartermaster corps. Other names used to describe the soldaderas included pleasure girls (auianime), valiant women (mociuaque-tzque), women warriors, juanas, capitanas, cockroaches (cucarachas), old ladies (Viejas) and cookies (galletas). The Mexican Revolution which broke out in 1910 brought overwhelming changes to the lives of thousands of Mexican women. Women played a very critical role in this Revolution and their roles depended on the necessities of the moment. Devastating battles or even incidences of rape forced some of the women to leave their homes and they attached themselves to various men serving in the armies who they volunteered to feed, nurse and provide with other essential services them in return for their security (Ruiz  Korrol 465, 690). In such way, the soldaderas became a fundamental part of the revolutionary armies and were essential to their survival. Although not all men accepted their presence and leaders such as Francisco Pocho Villa and others resented their presence arguing that they slowed down the movements of the troops, soldaderas continued being part of the revolutionary armies throughout 1913 and 1914. These women were so engrossed in the course of the Revolution that even after Villa ordered them to leave they would return as soon as he got out sight and continue with their services. Out of over 4,000 Mexican federal troops who crossed into Texas in 1914, 1,256 were soldaderas and of the 3,557 men in this army, some turned out to be women soldiers disguised in mens clothing (Ruiz  Korrol 465-466).

    Mexican women became soldaderas either by joining their husbands and other male relatives or through force whereby they would be kidnapped and ordered into offering various services to the soldiers. Although some of the women followed their men out of love, most of them became soldaderas because they did not have an alternative. Some soldaderas could be as young as 12 years of age and many of them were abducted by the soldiers and forced to follow them. Women whose husbands had defected to the enemy camp, as well as single girls became victims to this forceful recruitment. Whole villages were destroyed in the war and some families lost all their men. Those women left behind had no choice but join the army as camp followers in order to escape starvation as well as secure their safety. Rapes had also become very rampant and many women opted to become camp followers as a way of escape from the shame of their communities. In the course of the Revolution, camp followers and soldiers developed such intimate bonds that the soldaderas could even release fire to avenge or protect their male partners. Although most of these women were free to leave as they wished, majority chose to stay on even after their partners had been killed in the Revolution. However, these unattached soldaderas lived in pathetic conditions because they did not receive the regular allowance given to their companions. Yet, they chose to linger on as they lacked a better alternative and also as they waited for the right men to show face (Toman 262).

    At the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, soldaderas became the epitome of domestic tasks on the battlefront. Yet, in the course of the war, their roles spread out to include other duties in the battlefields and as the Revolution progressed, weapons soon found their way into these womens hands. The soldaderas not only served as cooks, nurses and sexual companions but also as soldiers, spies and smugglers. Various duties included corn grinding, procuring and cooking food, nursing wounded soldiers, washing clothes, burying those who died in course of the struggle and even smuggling military supplies and weapons into the camp (Coerver, Pasztor  Bullington 472). To the Mexican military officials, the soldaderas were according to Ruiz and Korrol, a necessary evil because at the time, the Mexican armies did not provide stores on the military camps that would provide food to the soldiers (690). Soldaderas became food foragers and through provision of this type of service, they helped to control the number of soldiers who deserted the camps in search of provisions. Cooking for the soldiers was a duty that these women conducted very faithfully and when the soldiers sat down to eat these brave women took up arms and stood in their defense. Such actions led to death of very many of the women when the enemy camp attacked. The soldiers positively embraced the services of the soldaderas and in 1912 for example, the Mexican army even threatened to wage a mutiny when orders arrived that soldaderas had been banned from accompanying them. This order was called off and the soldaderas continued with their noble mission among the soldiers (Ruiz  Korrol 690).

     Women acted as spies, smuggled arms and ammunition, ferried messages and also served in combat. They would hide arms and ammunition in their long skirts and bay carriages and smuggle them across the Mexicali-Calexico boarder. The presence of so many women in the Mexican army camps created a tradition among the soldaderas to move towards various battlefields and engage in battle on impulse. Through such action, these women became part-time soldiers as they changed from being mere camp followers or caregivers into warriors. During the intense revolutionary years 1912-1915, the women contributed as much as 5 of rifle fire although the figures varied between different armies and different regions. As the Revolution progressed, some of these women became engaged in the actual fighting and through this way a few of them rose to leadership positions by successfully concealing their identities and passing out as men. Some of these women who disguised themselves rose to the ranks of officers in various Revolutionary armies and some even attained the rank of colonel. Through such leadership positions, a few of the soldaderas gained considerable fame. One such famous soldadera was Margarita Neri, a Mayan Indian from Quintana Roo who rose to the rank of army officer and became a commander of Indian troops fighting in Southern Mexico (Coerver, Pasztor  Bullington 472).  Some of the women played the role of combats by ferrying ammunition for the soldiers so that these men did not carry so much weight on the battlefield. They were used to reload rifles during combat and also scurried for rifles and cartridges from those soldiers who succumbed to the enemy fire. By 1915, Mexico was so drained of resources that soldaderas were used to search the battlefields for any empty cartridge shells that could be found. Mexico could hardly afford to buy cartridges from abroad and recycling of empty shells became a cheap alternative (Toman 262).

    In Mexican society, women did not enjoy recognition as full citizens and for many of them, serving as soldaderas created a life-changing experience. Each soldadera was attached to one soldier and in the process of providing sexual pleasure to the soldiers some soldaderas became pregnant and bore children the soldiers. These women often gave birth on the roads, as they marched behind the soldiers, some in the camps and others on the battlefields. Due to the lack of proper medical attention, most of these childbearing soldaderas died before they could attain the age of forty (Coerver, Pasztor  Bullington 472). Yet, as the soldiers received allowances for their upkeep, the soldaderas did not receive any money and had to ration their partners allowances in such way that they and their children would also get food provisions. These poor and ignorant women bore on their shoulders the tough burden of financing the war a burden which the revolutionaries had shifted on them (Toman 262).

    Despite the tremendous contributions and sacrifices that soldaderas made towards sustaining various armies, not all revolutionary leaders embraced them and a few of these leaders wished to eliminate them in order to pave way for a more modern army. Towards the end of the Mexican Revolution, the new Mexican leaders were able to achieve this goal and established a professional Mexican army that excluded the soldaderas. However, this official predisposition to ignore the contributions that these women made towards the Revolution did not wipe their history and the legacy that they had created lived on in Mexican art, folk songs or corridos, literature and even the film industry. One of the most famous folk song born out of the Mexican Revolution was Adelita which gained so much fame that the camp followers were thereafter referred to as Adelitas. Mexican painters also created images of soldaderas in their illustrations which depicted Mexicos history as well as its Revolution. Most of these painters celebrated the soldaderas for their beauty, loyalty and unusual submissiveness to men. Soldaderas were also incorporated into the writings of various novelists. Through art, folklore and literature, these women had created a legacy through which the history of the Mexican Revolution would be handed down to several generations. The soldaderas became part of Mexicos cultural history and the female image of the camp follower became symbolic of Mexicans immigrating to the U.S during the Revolution and after. This image of the camp follower found its way into the American film industry and was a major theme in such films as Viva Zapata (1952) and the Alamo (1960). During the Chicano movement later in the 1960s and 1970s, the Mexican soldadera was portrayed as an active soldier and became a popular figure in helping to recruit women and engage them in active struggle for the equal rights of Mexican Americans.  (Coerver, Pasztor  Bullington 472-473).

    In the course of the Mexican Revolution, large numbers of soldaderas served on the battlefield in various roles such as procurement and cooking of food, loading and firing of arms, prostitution and fighting among others. Some of these women simply followed the men who were close to them into war many following their husbands, fathers and brothers and some even following their lovers. However, a limited number of these women became trained female colonels and captains who eventually led the female and male armies into war (Linhard 4). Soldaderas followed their men like slaves, carrying huge baskets full of utensils and cooking pots on their shoulders. Others even carried small babies strapped to their backs. They displayed a kind of selflessness, infinite tenderness and fearless stamina in serving their men many of whom died in the war and left them at the mercy of the armies. These women defied the heat of the marches to perform acts of mercy of the highest magnitude. To the thirsty soldiers, a drop of water from these women was like manna dropped from heaven. Soldaderas provided the soldiers with the sexual and emotional support that was so necessary away from home and which kept them soldiering on in the battle fields. No doubt all these were special needs that would have led many of the soldiers to desert the battlefield and go back home but the soldaderas were always with them and encouraged them to go on with this noble course. On the battlefield, some of the women killed and others died while serving a political course that many deemed worthwhile. In whatever capacity that these women served in the Revolution, they played a very vital role and one is left to wonder how the armies would initially have made it without their services. To the soldiers, the soldaderas were not only angels who lighted their spirits but also became the soul of the Mexican Revolution through their undivided dedication to suffering. Soldaderas will always go down in the history of the Mexican Revolution for the articulate manner in which they combined their traditional roles as domestic servants, sexual companions, mothers, tribal leaders, war goddesses and warriors within the context of military life (Coerver, Pasztor  Buffington 202, 472-473 Ruiz  Korrol 465-466, 690).

    Machu Picchu which also means Old Peak refers to ruins of an old city which are found on the Andes Mountains in Peru. This old city is thought to have been a royal residence or religious site which was built at a period between 1430AD and 1470 AD. This is the period when Pachacuti Inca Yupangui was the leader of Inca people who used to live in these mountains earlier before the invasion of the Spaniards in 1500AD. For a short period of about 100 years that Inca people lived in this region, they constructed intricate architectural structures on the slopes of hilly mountains which have continued to marvel its visitors up to today (Vannoy, 3). These structures stand at an altitude of about 1800 feet above sea level. In total, the Machu Picchu consisted of 172 buildings of which 66 are found in the upper district and 106 are found in the lower district. The main construction part of the Machu Picchu measures 530 meters from the main gate to the last building which is the sacred rock at the Huayna Picchu. The area has a width of 200 meters. The area is estimated to have been a living place of close to 1200 inhabitants most of whom were women (Milson, 216). This is as evidenced by the skeletons of the remains. These are thought to have been servants and maids that served the king or the princess who lived and served together with the king.

Historical significance
    During the time of construction of Machu Picchu, the Inca people were a strong community until the time when the large portion of this population was consumed by the small pox in 1950ss and the rest were overpowered by their ethnic raiders. By the time Peru fell into Spaniard colonialism, the structures had transformed into ruins and the area covered by intense vegetation. The ruins were later discovered by an American archeologist named Hiram Bingham in 1911. The Inca architecture as portrayed in Machu Picchu represents one of the finest pre-historic architectural structures in the world (Bray, 47). This architectural technique is known as ashlar. Ashlar constitute cutting of blocks of stones which are later fitted together tightly without the use of mortar. One of the most significant representatives of this intrinsic architecture is found in the ollatatymbo, Cuzzo an even the pathways found at the Machu Picchu. From this site, it is clear that the Incas made a classical combination of thought with practicality in construction. They carefully planned their structures during construction. It is amazing how they were able to plot right angled structures without the use of surveying instruments. From some of evidence found in this section, Incas used models of their construction which were curved in stone before laying out the actual structures.

The choice of Incas to live within the mountains has a lot of significance to these people. They worshipped their gods and spirits of mountains which can be seen through their carving of distant mountains on flat surface of rocks which could have helped in their worship. They gave a lot of respect to any object in nature which they believed it had spirit. This can be seen in the way they created harmony too each and every object (Somervill, 29). Any rock that stood on the way of their construction, the rock was never demolished as paths were built around them. The buildings and other structures in the land had contours which were in line with the landform. Through this, the land and the structures that stood on it seemed to come together in a conspicuous form of unity. One of most form of exciting harmony is found on the Royal mausoleum where a rock was curved on the lower part and a structure constructed beneath it.

How the structures were made
Structures show a high level of architectural knowledge fine masonry work for that specific period of time. These structures were made from the most abundant materials from the locality which is granite rocks. Blocks of granite rocks were cut using stone or bronze tools which were later smoothened using sand. It is amazing to think of how these people at such a period would come up with ways of fitting together pieces of rocks some of which have multiple faces and corners. It is believed that these rocks were cut with levers on the side to help putting these rocks in position (Peterson, 21). These levers were later sanded off once the rocks were in position. This is as evidenced by presence of some levers on some rocks which could have been used as handles. The process of fitting these rocks must have been time consuming and up to detail as one the rocks leaves a minimal space between them. At a close look, the irregular shapes looks like a close knit system fitted together to complete a puzzle. Although the Incas have shown no evidence of knowledge about round objects, they represented their inti god (god of the sun) in that shape. May be the application of that shape was only left to their revered god.

Since there were no means other mechanical means of transporting these rocks to uphill, it is thought that hundreds of men were involved in rolling these rocks up the steep slopes. In addition there were no strong animals like oxen and donkeys which could be used to transport them neither were there strong threes to be used as levers. These blocks were later fitted together without any other fixing agent (Reinhard, 34). Peru lies in a high seismic zone where occurrence of earthquakes is a common phenomenon. The Incas architects must have considered layering locks on top of each other without mortar so that in case of an earthquake, these rocks would tilt freely and get back into position without leading to a collapse of the walls. These walls also show application of a great form of design that was aimed at helping the structures withstand event of earthquake (Mann, Crehore, 53).
The doors and the windows were designed in a trapezoidal form and they tilted on the inward direction from the bottom to the upper part. Most of the corners of these structures were rounded with the inner corners tilting towards the inner part of the room. Where there were corners, L-shaped blocks of rocks were used to complete right angles. Just like in the Pyramids of Egypt, the buildings had a narrow top than bottom to increase stability. The rocks were placed on top of each other giving an offsetting allowance which created a form of multi-level steps from one level to the other (Burger, Salazar, 46). The maintain balance, the lower part of the wall is constructed using larger pieces of rocks compared to the size of rocks in the upper parts of the wall. Although the artists did not have the modern day instruments to measure precision, the architects of the Inca used the precision of the eye to carry out construction through layering of rocks on top of each other leaving no space between them.

From the structures found at Machu Picchu, the architects involved in the construction of this old city must have done a great job so as to arrive at equilibrium in architecture in a slanting plane. The economy of space is seen in the way these people used their land. From their construction, no space was left to waste regardless of vastness of the land in the surrounding. The Incas built these structures while utilizing the space on a sloppy area near a great rock outcrop. All the palaces in this historical site portray a similar cleverness of creativity in construction. There is frequent application of series of physical features all over the place (Bingham, 16). This classic feature of Inca building style consists of buildings with asymmetrical walls with faultless joints between them. All the structures have gentle sloping walls which converged at the top. This makes the base of the building become wider than the roof. The gates or doors to each structure were made in a trapezoidal form as a part of the design.

On the part of the architectural finishing, the walls of these buildings show a fine mode of adjoining blocks of stone to each other. This can be seen in the main temple which gives one of the best attained walls in all of the structures. The design of Machu Picchu tends to move towards a peak of a sacred rock outcrop (Brukoff, et al, 61).

The architecture in construction incorporated the landscape of the surrounding. Most of the significant aspect of these buildings is that they were carried out on an inclined plane. The architects of Inca made a significant consideration about drainage. They designed their constructions with small conduits or channels which were aimed at preventing accumulation of any unwanted water.

Features
The construction area starts from the banks of Urubamba River and stretches up the gently sloping slope towards the peak of Machu cliff at a length of 600 meters. The city of Machu Picchu was surrounded buy a fortress wall measuring meters high and 1.8 meters wide (Burger, Salazar, 55). 

Living quarters
During construction of this site, the land available was divided into two main areas. The most constructed part contained the urban zone while the other part was dedicated to agricultural purposes. The urban zone comprised of two major forms of architecture. These structures were designed on an east to west direction. It comprises of square plots temples, royal tombs, and stair cases made from rocks with a high precision. In total the settlement space consisted of about 140 construction units (Reihnard, 69). There is a section of streets, stairways and other channels which used to deliver water to various homes. The neighborhoods of this urban area were organized according to their specific uses which are determined by their characteristic nature.  This area was divided into three main areas, the sacred portion, the popular district in the south and the high place where there lived the King, priests and other people who had a high regard in this society. At the first zone is the place where the temple of the sun, the intihuana and a room with three windows is found. All these structures were set aside for the sun god inti. The temples and palaces were built under very careful consideration some of which were constructed using white granite.

The popular district was the living area for the common people in the Inca kingdom which lived at the Machu Picchu. Along this area, simple buildings were constructed though at high level of architect including the storage buildings. These houses were constructed in groups of ten. Some of these houses were built around a communal court yard, while others were arrange in a line. The roofs of these houses were steep and were open while others were covered with thatches. The thatched houses were found outside the Machu Picchu and were used a temples. The architecture of some of these buildings consisted of rectangular prisms in shape. Their doors were trapezoidal in shape (Milson, 221). The main square and the sacramental areas are found surrounding two smaller square areas at the centre of urban section. This section is seen to have had a major ceremonial significance to the dwellers of this area.

The third part consisted of the royal place consisted of a group of houses which were constructed in rows in top f a slope. One residence consisted of reddish walls and is believed to have been the living place for the wise persons of the Incas. The living place for the princesses had rooms which were trapezoidal in shape. This place also contained the Monumental mausoleum which was a carved statue with an interior which looks like a vault and had carved drawings and was dedicated for the function of rites and offerings (Bray, 49).

Agricultural area
The area dedicated for agricultural purposes contains small raised areas which were dedicated for agricultural purposes. In the agricultural section, the area was subdivided into upper and lower sections. There were irrigation terraces which used to supply water for irrigation to these fields. In this area, there were channels which were used to dispatch water for irrigation. Some of these many agricultural terraces placed in sequence, were connected by a stone stairway fitted in the walls (Vannoy, 11). Other terraces were joined by a number of stone steps forming corridors. The layout of the terraces and platforms used for agricultural purposes were designed in perfect harmony with the mountains surrounding the site of this city. The retaining walls also formed terraces which created agricultural land as well as preventing soil erosion. Some architectures have described Machu Picchu as a castle of platforms as it contains numerous water fountains for irrigating the agricultural land and stairways to access one section from the a lower ground. This also became a part of element that was considered during the construction of the whole area of Machu Picchu (Peterson, 103).   Some of structures found in these surroundings known as collapas or granaries were used for storage of grains and coca which was cultivated in these terraces.

In the other side of the Machu Picchu is the Huayna Picchu or the young peak which can be accessed through a system of steep stone pavement.  Some of these pavements have been carved from large sections of granite rocks which were found on the ground.

Another significant architecture of the Machu Picchu is the intihuaftana or the hitching post of the sun which consists of a column of well placed stones. These stones forms what looks like a majestic piano.  At the onset of the winter, the Incas through their priests would hold a ceremony in this stone so as to tie the sun and prevent it from disappearing.

Other features
The Incas had mastered the technology of constructing one and two storey buildings of a rectangular construction. The means used to reach the second stories still remains a puzzle but it is thought it could have by means of ropes as there were no strong trees to make ladders. Another conspicuous aspect of Inca construction is the use of irregular shaped stones to construct well polished structures (Mann, Crehore, 87). However, at some portions the architects applied the use of regular shaped stones which were specially cut from massive structures of rocks.

The watch tower is located just near the main gate to the settlement area. Incas used this to keep watch from their enemies. It consists of a fortified building with three walls and section of windows. From this watchtower, it was easy to see both the settlement and agricultural areas and other area around the Machu Picchu. There is an upper cemetery is located next to a ritual rock where offerings were made for the dead (Burger, Salazar, 71).  According to Inca tradition, rituals were performed to the remains of the dead before being buried at selected parts in the surrounding. The main temple is located at the northern side of the sacred square near another temple which is referred to as the temple of three windows was a significant building used for worship.

Another distinct architecture in this site is the Royal mausoleum, which is located adjacent to the main gate, the main castle, sun temple, the watch tower, temples, and the water conveying ducts stairs, all of which were carefully carved out of stone. The mausoleum contains a massive rock which bears part of the temple of the sun. This is the place where the Incas came to worship their god and give ceremonial offerings as a sign of last respect to the mummies of their leaders and high ranking officers of this kingdom (Bingham, 90).

There is a street known as street of the fountains which is situated near the southern part of the Machu Picchu between the Royal palace and the temple of the sun. It has ponds which were used to store water from a holy spring. All the steps of the staircases in the Machu Picchu can total to approximate three thousand steps.

In summary, the significance of this old city shows the wisdom of ashlars architecture of the 1500 AD. From its structure and location, there is some evidence that the Machu Picchu was built as a palace which also acted as a religious capital.

Freedom is the best thing a human being expects even at the cost of basic amenities. An independent nation only can procure to its citizens that right in a proper manner. Most of them took violent means and some even took non-violent means under some great potential leaders to achieve freedom. Among those great leaders San Martin and Bolivar are the best known freedom fighters of South America. Both of these leaders exhibited lot of temperament in and stood on one point leaving their personal opinions and fought for the cause.

South America was under three Viceroyalties during the first decade of 19th century including The New Granada, The Peru and La Plata. Spain maintained the policy of mercantile and political control. Trade between Europe and South America and major political posts were totally under the control of Spanish people limiting the South American intellectual to the minor political and administrative posts. Revolutions in France and North America in 18th century ignited new ideas provoking American-born Spaniards or Criollos to take some proactive steps towards liberalization. Replacement of Spanish king by Napoleon in 1808 and entry of Spain into Napoleonic Wars as an ally of Britain opened new roles to juntas (governing committees) which were mostly under the hands of influential South Americans. During the reinstatement of the Spanish King Ferdinand in 1814, American has witnessed four years of war between Royalists and Republican factions. There was strong determination of retaining power for Spanish the war of Independence were prolonged until 1826 with the assistance of the British-trained Spanish veterans who fought for the Royalists.

San Martin and Bolivar
For Republicans cause, two men with enough potential to handle the situations came into the picture named Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. Bolivar served Napoleonic France and San Martin in Spain served Napoleons forces in Europe came to a conclusion that this is the right time for a rebellion in South American colonies as Spains attention was elsewhere.

There is a still conflict going on between the point that, who is greater among Bolivar and San Martin between southern historians and northern historians. Southern historians say the denial of San Martins reinforcements by Bolivar, which he needed, forced his abdication. Northern historians, say San Martin compromised because Bolivar was having more ability to win the war at that point of time with more army personnel than him.

Their family background
Both these revolutionary heroes were born in America, earlier one in rich family and other in official cadre family. San Martin was born in Cervatos de la Cueza, to Lieutenant Governor Juan de San Martin y Gmez in 1728. Bolivar was born in Caracas, Venezuela. His family was having huge property with large number of mines. He used his financial status to promote him and also spent huge sum of money to the revolutionary efforts.

Their career start ups
San Martin served for 22 years as a professional soldier for North America and Spain. He was into recruiting and training troops, surveying passes into Chile, collecting armaments and supplies, gathering information regarding enemy preparations and disseminating wrong information and there by misguiding them. With lot of strategic planning he crossed Andes along with 4,000 troops and 1,000 support personal, fought four prominent battles. San Martin started his military career under Spanish forces. Bolivar was trained in military school Milicias de Veraguas. Bolivar worked under Santo Domingo governor during 1550 to 1570.

Influence on Boliver
Bolivar was influenced by the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau, those who inspired French Revolution under the guidance of his uncle Simon Rodriguez. His uncle was expelled by the Spanish authorities, for the propagating against it. He was so fascinated by the intellectual knowledge and progress of Europe, which forced him to go to Europe. He found justification in the revolt for the independence influenced by Rousseaus Social Contract.

     San Marin had good number of collaborators including Simon Bolivar, Juan Gregorio de Las Heras, Bernardo OHiggins, Martin Miguel de Guemes  and Guillermo Brown.

Roles in Revolution
Bolivar was made Lieutenant Colonel, even though he is not having military training and participated in an assault on Spanish stronghold of Valencia. Bolivar was made in charge of important republican port, Puerto Cabello and due to a traitor there was a heavy loss and he fled to New Granada.
Lot of powerful manifestos was written and started championing a political system in 1812. In order to improvise his tactics he learnt European techniques and read number of books about the geographical conditions of South America.  He believed that once Venezuela is liberated then it will provide a road map to free all states.  The tactical thinking and his action in small attacks fetched the post of commander-in-chief of the entire New Granadian Army.

When Spanish government focused on Bolivar, his right hand Antonio defeated Spanish troops. In 1821, a federation was formed including Colombia, Venezuela, Panama and Ecuador, with Bolivar as president to it.

San Martin trained troops for three years to attack Chile. Independence movement in Argentina started only after San Martins arrival. OHiggins and Thomas Cochrane assisted San Martin for independence of Peru. Due to huge number of independent troops, the opposition allowed San Martin to allow and take over Peru which became independent in 1821.

Historical meeting
This meeting has a historical importance, soon after that San Martin left all his positions and went back to Argentina and later to France. In the meeting of Guayaquil, San Martin came to an opinion that, Bolivar had more troops and there was no space for both of them in Peru. San Martin is person with out personal ambition promptly withdrew and allowed Bolivar to go ahead to liberate Peru. San Martin was person who looks at the reality and was too cautious as well. He also admitted that he has a poor head for politics.

Meeting between both personalities helped them to have a better understanding of them as well as the progress of the movement and the roles to be taken by them. After the meeting Bolivar said two greatest men in South America the general San Martin and myself, where as San Martin said  the prompt conclusion of the war, the organization of the different Republic of the continent and the health of the Liberator of Colombia, referring to Bolivar.

The real question raised in the meeting was, who should lead the army and who should conclude the South American Independence. The first favourite is obviously San Martin, who cleared Lima of royalist forces, made efforts to organize Peruvian Government and having enough knowledge on the Spanish army tactics in Peru. But this was not accepted by Bolivar, who wants to command the army in the final war. The other question raised is about the post war government formation and its type. San Martin favoured monarchy and Bolivar wanted democratic republican from. But in the end Peru was interested in the monarchy only (Crow 1980).

San Martin realized that in course of momentous meeting with Bolivar, he self-sacrificed and stepped down his office and left to France. He was at his highest glory when he withdrew from the position.

Their achievements
Simon Bolivar participated actively in the rebuilding and administering of collapsed states. He was at apex position when congress of Latin America republics was assembled in Panama in 1826. Bolivar played a prominent role in liberating Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, Bolivia and Peru and became national hero of all these nations. He is also recognized as El Liberator and the George Washington of South America.

San Martin was instrumental in getting independence to Chile, Argentina and Peru. During the time of exile Bolivar wrote book on Spanish-American history, the Carta de Jamaica. He lead the victory of war in Spanish American Independence with is military and political knowledge (Janson 2010).  Regency of Rio de la Plata was liberated by General San Martin and also assisted General OHiggins in liberating Chile helping in the battles of Maipo and Chacabuco.

In the word of (Luis Clavarino ) states that it was not the General Simon Bolivar who gave liberty to Peru and he added Peru owes its independence to the Argentine General Jose de San Martin, who freed the Argentine Republic, Chile and the Republic of Uruguay. Most of the historians have not accepted the opinion of Mr. Clavarino and said that Mr. Clavarino did not read the total history of Peru, rather gone through only the early part when San Martin tired to extend the military services across his native country. This was done only at time when the Independence of Peru was assured after the battles of Junin and Ayacucho. They won the battles under the liberator, Bolivar with his strategic planning and with the assistance of Ecuadorians, Colombians, Venezuelans and Peruivan veterans who defeated the Viceroy La Serna and General Canterac. This ended the strong hold overseas Spanish domination. Without San Martin, we cannot think of freedom of Peru at that time (Lopez 1921).

Opinion on type of governments
The gross difference of thought between Bolivar and San Martin is about the form of government, where earlier believes in republicanism and later one in monarchy. 

San Martin declared himself as protector of Peru, facing lot many internal and external problems with the army and the general public in the process of persuading them for better and stable Peru.  San Martin stressed for ideal constitutions that fit the need of the country and Bolivar along his followers forced for republics (Franco 1994). Bolivar was against easygoingness on crime and was on an opinion it contributed to the fall of the First Republic.

Their dream
The approach of Bolivar was littler bit wider than San Martin due to his impracticable and dangerous degree. Bolivar dreamed of a single South American federation right from Panama to Cape Horn. His dream was little difficult due to vast cultural and climatic difference among the northern and equatorial regions. Bolivers dream of creating an American Revolution-style federation was not come true due to individual interests and particular interests of different regions. To overcome all these disturbances he proclaimed himself as a dictator through the Organic Decree of Dictatorship. This measure was taken to save the republic, but it was taken negatively by his opponents. Even unsuccessful assassination attempt was also made.

Lautaro lodge was created by San Martin, whose aim was to set free South America of the Spanish yoke. He was so determined and self-sacrificed his own positions to Bolivar to make his dream come true.

Role on slavery
There were difference of opinion among the Bolivar and San Martin on the question of who are the slaves, slave owners and relative concentration and economic importance. Slaves in north were mostly working in slaves, where as in south they were into house hold works and artisans. San Martin got support from the slave owners and accepted the slaves to be soldiers, whereas Bolivar got resistance from the slave owners and he himself was not truly interested in taking slaves as soldiers on loan basis and later it was inevitable to take them. Bolivar set free the slaves in the excitement of the independence movement. This had a major impact on abolition of slavery all over the Western Hemisphere subsequently.

As a whole, slave contribution was immense to the independence of South America and took one more generation to get rid of slavery until it is abolished despite the promise that the slaves who participated will get freedom.

Rise and Fall
San Martin was modest and unselfish man. San Martin is recognized as Father of the Fatherland by Argentina, Founder of the Freedom of Peru, Founder of the Freedom of the Freedom of Peru, Founding of the Republic and Generalissimo of Weapons by Peru and Chile with his army rank of Captain General. After the meeting San Martin went exile and died in August 17th, 1850.
In, 1822, the secret meeting between San Martin and Bolivar in Guayaquil, was a historic incident that paved way to achieve magnificent glory to him, who liberty to Peru and leading to the establishment of Bolivia. He continued to fight for the freedom of South American Republics. He was conferred with the title of Protector of Peruvian Freedom for his efforts to liberate Peru partially and took the task of liberating fully from the Spain. At the Congress of Upper Peru, in 1825, the Republic of Bolivia was created and even Venezuelan currency, Venezuelan Bolivar is under his name which is a very rare opportunity to any individual. Even the constitution was influenced by his thought process and with the Greek and Roman philosophy.  Bolivar left for exile in 1830, and died in Colombia, and buried there itself, because its native Venezuela hasnt allowed him. By the end of his life his was totally degraded and lost the glory he received.

Among the three heroes of American wars of liberation, San Martin is a person of democratic, liberal attitude. He is person with ability to think big and a genius for organization. Recent trend of Simon Bolivar cult, promoted by Hugo Chavezs petrodollars, the other prominent fratricidal war leader through which Spains domination over American continent was broken was overshadowed. Still San Martin is recognized as the liberator of Chile and Argentina. According to Mr. Lynch, San Martins achievements were dissimilar to that of Bolivar, but not inferior in totality. Despite of countless efforts made by San Martin, he was not given enough importance compared with his achievement and now stood as a forgotten hero of the Latin American Independence.

    The Latin American Wars of Independence were a series of wars that broke out in American countries under the rules of Spain and Portugal, led mostly by creoles who sought to break away from their mother country.  These creoles had obtained subversive information from radical philosophers outside Latin America and were inspired to organize an uprising against their colonizers.  They sought political liberalism from their colonizers, a new set of ideas associated with the French Revolution, and the newly independent United States of America (Chasteen  Wood 54).  Political liberalism, which promised to be a revolutionary break from the colonial past, was merely a smokescreen that the Creole leaders put up to justify their desire for Independence. 

     Enlightened viceroys and intendants introduced new improvements and refinements that made life in colonial cities more healthful and attractive (Keen  Haynes 158).  Educational reforms, the influx of new books and the influx of books and ideas, and increased opportunities to travel and study in Europe widened the intellectual horizons of the Creole youths (158). Many creoles read forbidden writings of Raynal, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and other radical philosophies.   These gains did not strengthen Creole feelings of loyalty to the mother country instead, they enlarged Creole aspirations and sharpened their sense of grievance.  They harbored bitter resentment against institutions that suppressed their development. As a result, Creoles and peninsulars tended to become mutually hostile castes.

     American Revolution posed a threat to Spanish colonizers because ships that entered legally or illegally came with subversive documents from the American Revolution. Both revolutions sought to throw off rule of mother country whose mercantile system hindered the further development of a rapidly growing colonial economy.  Both were also led by well-educated elites who drew slogans from the ideas of Enlightenment.  However, the Latin American wars of Independence did not have a unified direction or strategy (162) due to vast geographical distances and economic and cultural isolation of the various Latin American regions from each other.  It also lacked the strong popular base provided by more democratic and fluid society of the English colonies.

    When Miguel Hidalgo waved the banner of Virgin of Guadalupe and proclaimed the independence of Mexico, it seemed like the word independence meant two different things for two different factions (Vandewood, 166). Mexico was divided into two after the colonial rule the Creole elites and the Indian masses.  The former wanted to unite the nation but the latter simply wanted to return to pre-Columbian greatness (166).  Each faction had different desires and naturally, it the oppressed faction was the latter.  Mexico had been freed from colonial oppression but it had to face regionalism and corruption from its own citizens. Mexicos first steps toward establishing its own system of governance was a turbulent journey.

    The 1826 congressional election is a good example of corruption in postcolonial Mexico, where the Escoseses accused the York Rite Masons, or the Yorkinos, of vote buying and false patriotism. This was a crucial election because it replaced half of the Senate and the entire Chamber of Deputies and also determined who would control many state legislatures (Warren 79). Two newspapers, El Aguila Mexicana and El Sol, expressed very different views on the Yorkinos.  El Sol accused the Yorkinos of using politics as a way of securing patronage for Mason lodge members but El Aguila Mexicana defended them and said that the Yorkinos were egalitarian (80).  The Escoseses criticized the Yorkinos for false patriotism and said that they did no more than kiss the chains of Spanish oppression during the Independence war (80). It would be wrong to assume that the Yorkinos were liberalists and the Escoseses were not the Escoseses simply wanted to build a new government gradually while the Yorkinos wanted rapid development (Fowler 96).

    Both parties had bought prefabricated ballots during the elections.  The Escoseses complained that the Yorkinos bought the Scots Rite sample ballots and destroyed them at the same time that the other Yorkinos paid poor folks to vote more than once (Warren 81). The Yorkinos, on the other hand, did not allow these accusations to dampen their spirits.  They were confident that they had all the support that they needed because they represented the general public opinion, unlike the Escoseses. The senate conducted an investigation on secret societies, which eventually turned into a game the senate was not able to suppress the secret societies. The Yorkinos had nothing to fear because the general public sentiment was on their side this sentiment unnerved the Escoseses such as the former vice president General Nicolas Bravo, who spearheaded a revolt to unseat the Yorkinos from their powerful position (Fowler 97). 

    The 1928 Presidential elections determined whether popular sentiment was heard in the government.  It was a fight between Independence war hero and Yorkino bet Vicente Guerrero and Manuel Pedraza, the Escoseses bet.  Pedraza beat Guerrero by two votes.  Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana protested the results and rallied for Guerrero. The election results were deemed null in December 3, 1928 and Guerrero took over as president of Mexico. 

    Postcolonial Argentina was plagued by internal conflict as well. When independence was attained from Spain, congress discussed the future of Argentina as an independent country. Some caudillos did not agree on several terms. For instance, many resented the heavy taxes imposed to support the struggles (Aeberhard, Benson  Phillips 703). The 1820s began with an inter-caudillo war between the Unitarists and Federalist forces.  Bernardino Rivadavia, the first outright president of Argentina, wanted to propose a new constitution however, provinces rejected this because they did not want to give the concession of the land to national government (703).  These objections weakened the Rivadavia presidency. 

    Juan Manuel de Rosas was a controversial figure in the history of Argentina.  Intellectuals criticized Rosas as barbaric tyrant who violated the rules of the constitution but there were also others who recognized his efforts in defending Argentina against exploitation (Lewis 43). Rosas focused on the economic needs of Buenos Aires by allowing wealthy ranchers and investors to take huge tracts of land and by instituting tariffs against ranching products produced outside the province (45).  Rosas was known to suppress his political opponents.  When he briefly retired in 1832, a threat of a civil war appeared.  People did not find his achievements sufficient to justify his atrocious acts.

    Most of the Latin American Countries had won political independence from their mother countries after the Wars of Independence.  However, the creoles who led the wars did not intend to transform the existing order in their countries they simply wanted to drive away their colonizers so they could rule the country themselves (Chasteen  Wood, 23).  The creoles, the new liberal generation, was typically composed of mostly ambitious politicians whose social mobility was made possible by secondary education (106).  They simply wished to eradicate the remnants of their colonial past so they can have more social mobility in their own country. Latin America may have escaped from the hands of their colonizers but the rule of their fellow citizens did not significantly improve the political atmosphere.


Second Question
Majority, if not all, of Latin Americas economy relied on agriculture and land.  The old feudal system in which landholders had control over the peasants was the prevalent system during the Spanish colonial period.  One of the desires of Latin American countries was to gain full control of their own economic system and to allocate lands fairly among its citizens.  Not all citizens, however, shared these sentiments.  People from different classes wanted to possess land but for different causes.  Efforts to propagate equality in Latin America were certainly abundant but liberal policies did not take into account the vast differences between the wealthy and the poor (Bakewell 4434).   

    The desire for economic liberation has long been a Colombian dream since the period of Spanish colonization because for the longest time, wealth distribution in the country was unequal.  Wealth only rested on the hands of the few. Land ownership remained with the church and the upper class. One of the hopes of the Colombians was to attain economic equality and independence from their motherland.  Independence from Spain, however, did not change the economic weather in the country.  The national and regional upper classes, including landlords, merchants, slave owners, the upper class echelons of the clergy, and the self-proclaimed local and military regional leaders, rejected any attempt to change the social, economic, and political structure  (Osterling 61).  President Francisco de Paula Santander was one of the few government officials who proposed reforms in Colombia.  One of his goals were to implement free trade system and to make agricultural land circulate among the interested parties and become a commodity easily traded in the open market (62).  He was, unfortunately, unable to implement his reforms. 

Numerous presidents had ruled the country since Santander but were not able to successfully implement economic reforms.  However, it was not until President Tomas de Cipriano Mosqueras administration that reforms were concretized.  The percentage of unappropriated land had increased rapidly in the late nineteenth century, that rural conflicts by landless peasants (69).  The government passed the first legislation in 1874, which was intended to grant ownership of previously unoccupied land to those who had incorporated it into agriculture and who worked for it over the decade (69). 
The legislation did not provide a simple solution to the complicated problem.  Powerful but landless elites saw it as an opportunity to lobby for unoccupied lands which had been settled by landless and illiterate elites before.  Many colonists, small farmers and peasants also claimed that powerful landlords had appropriated land that they or their predecessors had developed for agriculture, and that the former unappropriated or uncultivated land was technically the property of those who had worked it and not those who had lobbied and manipulated the title granting rights (69).  Colombia was divided into elites and peasants who fought for land.  The conflict of both started the violence in Colombia that continued throughout the twentieth century. 

Guatemala had the same problem with land.  Coffee was a staple in Guatemalan agriculture and a vast expanse of land was needed in order to produce more of it.  However, ownership of land rested on the few, powerful elite of the country.  All of this was about to change under the presidency of Justo Rufino Barrios.  Almost immediately after taking the presidency in 1873, Barrios implemented a series of decrees that made land available to coffee planters and encouraged privatization by simplifying procedures for the conversion of community property into individually titled holdings (Grandin 112).  Barrios confiscated church and monastery land. He also took hold of uncultivated land and sold them cheaply or granted to private interests and indigenous communal lands (Keen and Heyes 266).  The small to medium-scale coffee growers were supposed to be the beneficiaries of this law but incidentally, foreign immigrants took advantage of this law as well. It came to a point where foreign-owned land produced half of the countrys coffee and only 7.3 of the Guatemalan population owned the land (266). 

Nicaraguas agriculture and economy was dependent on coffee plantations as well but it only became a principle economic activity in the 1870s (267).  Before that, Nicaraguans were dependent on cattle ranching and subsistent agriculture. The sudden growth of coffee in the world market prompted elitists to secure a land suitable for growing coffee. Laws were implemented in 1877 that villages to sell their communal lands. The passage of vagrancy laws and laws that permitted landowners to hire native people for agricultural work ensured cheap labor in the land.  This sparked various indigenous revolts in Nicaragua.  One of the revolts was the War of the Communeros in 1881, where the indigenous groups were defeated and was followed by a ferocious repression that took five thousand lives (267). 

In 1893, the coffee planters staged a revolt because the traditional ways of the cattle raisers clashed with their modern ways. The revolt brought the liberalist Jose Santos Zelaya to presidency.  As a modernist president-dictator, Zelaya prioritized the construction of infrastructure such as railroads, roads, port facilities and telegraphic communications (267).   Zelaya, just like a typical liberalist, believed that foreign investors were necessary to the countrys economic growth. He granted large concessions to foreign capitalist by 1909, Nicaraguas production of coffee, lumber and gold  the principal sources of Nicaraguas wealth  was dominated by North American firms (267). 

El Salvador, like the previous countries mentioned above, went through the similar situation.  The colonizers were attracted to El Salvador mainly because of their rich land.  El Salvador went through two economic cycles in just two years.  The first cycle was dominated by cacao, which collapsed in the seventeenth century (267).   Indigo replaced cacao but it experienced a sharp decline in the latter half of nineteenth century as a result of competition and the development of synthetic dyes. 
Coffee production entered the picture only in the 1860s, when there was a search for a new export crop.  Coffee production was a risky business because coffee trees did not grow until three years. Producers had to have capital or credit for this business, which the hacenderos he grew indigo had access to (267).  A government decree declared that if two-thirds of a pueblos communal lands were not planted in coffee, ownership would pass into the hands of the state (267). This prevented Indians from looking for new land and forcing them to work in plantations. Land ownership still remained in the hands of 14 families (Foley  Hapipi 23). 

Latin America was eager to concretize change in the economic system that was brought by their colonizers.  However, not everyone had the same goals and intentions.  The powerful elite citizens wanted to drive away their colonizers to secure for themselves huge tracts of land for business and wealth. They did not want to change the system they simply wanted to change the people behind it.  On the other hand, the natives and the small farmers yearned for land that they could call theirs because they had long been taking care of the land that was not theirs. Land meant different things for different classes.  Land was a source of personal fortune and relations of privilege and power for the small, landed oligarchy for the indigenous groups and a vast majority of workers and producers, it was their primary source of livelihood (Veltmeyer 287).  Land reform attempts were meant to equalize the classes and the distribution of property but the results depended on who had the political power and how parties manipulated the law.

Gender performance was a concept constructed and pioneered by a post-feminist philosopher Judith Butler. According to her theories, gender is characterized as an effect of reiterated acting, which obscures the inability and contradiction of a single persons gender act and, thus, produces the effect of a normal or static gender. This effect produces what is considered as true gender, an argument that is sustained by the tacit collective agreement to produce, perform and sustain discrete gender as cultural fictions. Gender performance is only subversive because, it is the kind of cultural construction that resists calculation with which its significance is multiplicities that the subject can not control it and thus the subversion are always unpredictable (Butler 199013-17).

The research shows that the traditional gender which groups people, say, women with common interests and characteristics, performs an unwitting reification and regulation of gender relations (Taylor 200418-23). This further reinforces the binary view of gender relations in which human beings are grouped into clear cut groups such as women and men. Butler points out that rather than gender performance open up possibilities for people to form and choose their own individual identity, it in very flexible terms confine the action of the people within the provision of the culture (Butler 1990 23-29). This paper seeks to examine Butlers argument that gender is culturally constructed with the original intention disputing that biology is destiny formulated with a succinct reference to EduardStella performance of gender.

Understanding Gender Performance
Butler notes that feminists strongly rejected the idea that biology is destiny formulated in the view of gender, but subsequently developed an account of patriarchal culture, which assumed that feminine and masculine representation of man and woman would inevitably be built by gender, which in the end makes the entire concept of destiny as inescapable (Butler 199015-23). The evidence of historical and anthropological positions that understand gender as a relation among culturally and socially constituted subjects lies within the precincts of specifiable contexts.

In other words, as Gauntilet concludes, rather than gender being a fixed attribute in the person, it should be understood as a fluid variable with the ability to shift and change in different contexts and times (Gauntilet 200212-17). For instance, the very fact that sometimes women and men say that they feel more like their opposite gender, shows an experience of a gendered cultural identity that denies the prepositions of gender being biologically destined.

In addition to this, certain cultural configurations of gender have captured a very hegemonic perspective. In other words, these cultural orientations of gender have come to seem natural in our culture as it is present today. Butler suggests that gender troubles associated with subversive action are relevant in the mobilization, subversive confusion and proliferation of genders through the whole question of struggling with identity (Butler 199031-36). As a case in point, Santiago highlights how gender trouble works in cultural constructions (Santiago 1994 23-29). Stella, an exuberant, beautiful and sensuous woman is ready to explore herself in what she calls, taking New York by storm. Understanding that she is beautiful, she spends her time picking up men and shooting the breeze. However, Stella does this only at night and on weekends but during weekdays, she changes her identity to Eduard, a clerk at a Brazilian consulate. All these predispose that her gender performance is inquires into the question of gender trouble as indicated in the struggles to establish her identity.
In a recent survey, it is apparent that we all put on a gender performance, whether in tacit or explicit ways, traditional or not and, therefore, choosing to be different about our gender is analogous to changing gender norms, and, thus, resulting in the binary understanding of gender in the light of masculinity and femininity (Gauntilet 2002 32-39).

However, Butler underscores that gendered productions demonstrates the extent, to which issues of gender can be performed independently as ones biological sex (Butler 199025-41). For instance, sex and gender match in a reflection of what is understood to mean unshakable conviction. For example, EduardStella performance of gender combines a sexual intrigue with social and political orientations. In her two identities, Stella is feminine and becomes masculine when she doubles upon as Eduard (Santiago 1994 31-37). This dual existence of gender is a performance that concisely that disputes the notion that gender is biology destined or formed. Furthermore, gender performance is argued to take the dimension of passing as the embodiment of ones new gender.

Whilst the study focused explicitly on gender as construed in light of sex, Taylor contend that  transsexual makeovers are gender performances indicators that conforms to a system that insists on being either male or female, but which must not go passed the mindsets of doing certain duties as prescribed by the society (Taylor 200445-51).In the case of EduardStella, the applicability of gender performance as a concept, has been previously considered that transsexual members in the society are not the only ones who summon the courage to by pass the societal expectations in how people of certain gender should be viewed.

Gender Polarization
It is appreciated that the factor of male or female genitalia counts heavily on the identification of gender and influences its performance. For example, Eduard Stella was forced at least culturally to dress, walk, speak and run as a woman, and that is why she performed gender roles of a woman during the weekends and at night and still operated like Eduard, a man, during the weekday. The predominance in the performance leaned on the masculine side thus, terming StellaEduard case as homosexual. This factor is culturally a taboo and thus gave EduardStella no piece of mind or leeway to do as he pleases.

Gender polarization appears to expand the question of biological difference to the extend that men and women are inevitably vulnerable to the feeling that their femaleness or maleness can not be taken for granted but must instead be accomplished, worked at or protected from loss through misbehavior within the parameters of culture and society. The strength of such an approach, according to Butler, rests on the understanding that gender performance is not a natural or historical behavior but it is an effect of gender polarization (Butler 199046-51). Taylor further assert that gender is displayed in reaction to the structural demands of patriarchy in the society (Taylor 2004 25-32). Such a phenomenon exclusively relies on the elements of distinguishing men from women. As a result, gender performances are part of these elements which borders the provinces of cultural demands.
Large bodies of research into the issue of gender and gender performances portend that to gender, biological sex is socially and culturally constructed (Gauntilet 200237-43). Butler reinforces this argument by posing that discourse of gender hides the discursively of sex by constituting gender as culturally produced. Thereby, gender performance is a discursive apparatus embedded in culture. A stating point for analyzing gender performance begins with eschewing gender as stable trait. However, Taylor outlines that looking at gender performance requires examining genders continual production (Taylor 200476-81). With regard to this, gender construction is never finalized nor done. For example, like EduardStella, one may knock a door like a man and enter a room like a woman but to continue being like a woman or man, it is imperative that one must continue displaying cues that signify woman or man.

Rationale of Gender Performance
The theories of gender according to Butler question the conception of gender as a natural order (1990 112-117). The relevance of gender in the contemporary culture is evident in the roles expected of both men and women. For instance, women and men have different reproductive strategies in the question of biology. However, in the dimension of culture and gender performance, men are expected to court, propose, woo, seduce and on a lighter note, it is men who rape. This contrasts sharply with the genetic inheritance where women have the best chance of choosing whom to copulate with and get children. In a cultural outlook, gender performance is evident in the fact that women have been construed to be adaptive and therefore, they resist courtships in order to evoke a more competitive display among the men. In other words, sexual activity and the attendance free floating lust are looked at in the lens of gender performance, as a cultural orientation that presents men as adaptive in their roles.

According to Butler, gender roles and performance is more classified and keenly looked at in terms of moral preferences (1990123-129). The biological conception of gender, which is static, tasks both male and female as agents of reproduction and can succeed in projecting copies of their genes into the future. On the contrary, Gauntilet argues that this can not be construed as gender because, gender performances determines the male success as typically achieved by effective competition, while female success rest on the paradigms of relationships (200256-62).

As a result, for masculinity, morality is at its ideal and alluring when its is a morality of justice, and the theoretical principle that places restraints upon aggressiveness, competition and self serving tendencies are cultural constructions that are dynamic and subject to change within the parameters of technological advancement and education in developing communities. For femininity, gender performance is a moral obligation which is suffused with images of relationships and caring for others all pictured in emotions and affective approaches. Taylor (2004 87-93) therefore, summarizes that gender performance of morality is an ethic of inhibiting ones nasty self among the men and releasing of the caring self among the females.

Perhaps, the most intriguing question that holds the perspective of gender as culturally constructs is whether thee issue in sexual roles is an anachronistic biology. Butler (1990156-161) explains that the contemporary aggression is how cultural evolution has extended this instinct. For example, when Eduard father was embarrassed by his sons homosexuality, he employed every tactic including using the contact of his friend Colonel Vianna to get Eduard a job in the Brazilian consulate but the contemporary evolution as pictured up above leads to the colonel turning out to be gay and extending the web of homosexuality with Eduard.

Gender Performance and Civilization
The new civilized form of societies tend to have more complex social and political structures that create newer possibilities of indefinite social expansions, which comes fore in the constructions of gender roles. Gauntilet (200245-51) outlines that in the events of all this, more and more people are organized into a more territory with their lives revolving around the inevitable limit of their gender performances placed on by culture. These civilized societies however, through the eminent lack of inherent values and the possibility of liberalism, they allow themselves to grow to encounter new external limits in forms of one another. Accordingly, this overarching power holds them in the light of choosing what is appropriate to their life and somehow deviates from the traditional expectation of societys gender performance.

In a more subtle approach, gender performance is a phenomenon that is continually shaped by varied factors such as interaction forces, psychological appreciation, and time. A recent study postulates that as people stepped outside the threshold into civilization, they inadvertently stumbled in a chaotic niche with regard to gender performance (Taylor 2004127-131).The relations among societies are virtually controlled and they are dependant on ungoverned systems that impose unchosen necessities.
On the other hand, the gender issue as underscored by Butler (199063-69), tries to understand the question that if gender is constructed, could its construction be different or does it imply certain forms of social determinism. It is beyond any reasonable doubt that succumbs to the eminent possibilities of agency and transformation. Social constructions therefore, engender people thus deriving this feature from cultural compulsions in which gender is constructed along the same binary distinction as sex. Significantly, the seemingly inevitable mirroring between sex and gender arises from necessity intelligibility in cultural contexts. For example, intelligible genders are those which in certain senses institute and maintain the relations of continuity, coherence among desires, sex and sexual practices as  evidenced in the attempt of EduardStella to maintain homosexuality and thereby achieve high state of success by getting himself members.

In addition to this, the cultural matrix, through which the identity of gender has become intelligible does not follow from the practices of desire or sex from male or female. According to Taylor (200489-94), these matrix of culture regulates our engendered identities thus, acting as an intricate web of cultural and social assumptions. For instance, a socially acknowledged acceptance becomes deeply rooted as a set of knowledge that we as individuals assumes to know about ourselves and these forms our gender identities. In Stella Manhattan, a political Eduard finds himself sucked into the partisan violence in his country involving the communist who believe he is working for the right and the American who think he is aligned to the left a factor that leaves him trapped such that he can not go back to brazil neither can he stay in New York.

The passionate attachment to the same sex is held on the idea of Butler (199091-97) as enclosed in the radical sense of something which does not positively exist or was perhaps excluded from the very beginning. As a result, the sexual differences between male and female does not in any way pose problems of gender identity and argued to be the primary guarantor of loss of peoples psychic lives. Sexual differences can be slightly or crudely equated with the heterosexual symbolic clause that determine what it is to be a man or a woman. Although to some existent, the sexual difference can not be transposed, or symbolized into a symbolic unit, it entirely fixes the subjects sexual identity thus playing a significant role in guiding the gender performance of an individual within the milieu of a culture.

From Stella Manhattan, the construction of gendered identity is fascinating. Santiago (1994 76-82) shows in precisely how the plurality of sexual preference and gendered identity are not only constructed culturally but also shaped by a n individual persons mindset. The binary of masculine and feminine in this view clarifies what is the fundamental principle in gender performance. As such harmony against the conflict as well as the violence of self becomes a considerable factor in the entire question of gender and gender identity. An image which in a dream forms the message of Stella Manhattan story, StellaEduard reacts ambiguously against the categorization of gender and indeed towards the act of gender identification. He is a character that render both his masculine and feminine gender both position and essence and hence his gender draws attention to identity and gender performance as apparent in his homosexuality episodes.

Moreover, the strategies used to construct gender are to some extent fuelled by political manifestations. These strategies eventually gender identity and performance are construed and ultimately deployed within the system of power relation. Towards e end of the story, Santiago gives the reader a sense of a characters dual existence fostered by political situations and to the best of all StellaEduard has his own agenda as he grows more and more frantic and finally one day disappears. This character lives her life on her own terms which shed some light into the issue of gender performance in the context of New Yorks vibrant and chaotic Brazilian community in the early sixties (Santiago, 1994117-124).

It is argued widely that gender is synonymous to sex to the extent that societal expectations are factored in. In the twenty first century, ways of thinking about gender and sexuality are bound to dramatically change and pose a considerable impact on identity and gender performance. In essence liberalism, influence of the media and permissiveness in the society is going to strongly facilitate the growing schemas about the alteration of gender and gender performance which will eventually facilitate what is considered as the acceptable behaviors and roles of a man. This is  even on course as Butler (1990203-212) explains that today, the distinction sex in the paradigms of biology as well as the socio-cultural man and woman is normative as gender performance is left largely on the determination of individual persons. In addition gender performances are negotiated due to multicultural diversity explains the emanating difference are dispatched and homogenized without ever dwelling on the profound implications of traditional community specific cultures.

Various scholars have worked out their arguments of gender performance and identity and have given their varied position on the question as a cultural inscription that declines the possible destined relationship with biology. From the forgoing discussion, it is evident that layers of gender performances continue to be changed through the fluidity and permeable boundaries in the digital age. In these terms,  gender performance can be seen as a set of stylized gender identities in the cultural regulations that societies as well as individuals use as blue prints to adhere to in a bid towards constructing their intelligible selves. In other words gender is a performance that is confined to what an individual does at a particular time rather than who an individual is. Therefore, it is safe to outline that gender performances and gender issues are flexible, free-floating and not caused by other stable factors such as biology and genetic hereditary.

During the second voyage, Christopher Columbus landed in this land in 1493. He named it San Juan Bautista. In 1508, this land was granted settlement rights by the Spanish leadership. The person who was involved was referred to as Juan Ponce de Leon, known for establishing the Caparra settlement, and also became the first governor. In 1519, Caparra was relocated to a place where there was a healthier environment. From that time, this land is popularly known as Puerto Rico, which also means Rich Port. The reason why it was given this name was because of its harbor, which is among the best natural bays in that region (Every Culture, 2010). Puerto Rico is an island which is subjected to several problems, mainly because it is not independent.

Internal affairs
Puerto Rico has authority in its internal affairs. To start with, it controls the interstate trade, commerce and foreign relations, air control, customs administration, sea and land emigration and immigration, citizenship and nationality, maritime law, air force and navy, legal procedures and jurisdictions, television and radio communications, minerals and mining, agriculture as well as the social system. Social security and other areas are usually controlled by the US federal government in the US. The institutions in Puerto Rico control the affairs of the US unless the law is involved, for instance in matters pertaining pollution and public health. The major difference between the other fifty US states and Puerto Rico is that they are exempted from Internal Revenue Code, voting in the US Congress as well as the ineligibility of the citizens of Puerto Rico voting in the elections (To Puerto Rico, 2010).

Commonwealth
Puerto Rico is a commonwealth which governs itself, with a close association with the United States. The chief state is the US president, where the government usually consists of an elected governor. There are two legislative chambers, which include the Senate with a total of twenty seven seats and the House of Representatives, which has fifty one seats (To Puerto Rico, 2010).

The citizens of Puerto Rico have established a commonwealth constitution .They have organized themselves politically on a democratic basis in order to promote the welfare of the people and secure the total enjoyment of their human rights and posterity. They established the constitution after creating a union with the United States. In their commonwealth constitution they have declared that their democratic system is important for the lives of all Puerto Rico citizens. The governments democratic system is one in which the will of all the people is represented, and is the sole source of power. The political ordinate has to be in accordance with the rights of man, and there is a total participation of the collective decisions of all citizens (To Puerto Rico, 2010).

The evolution of the Puerto Ricos commonwealth was to counteract the separatist movements which were growing so as to answer the international challenges of the conditions of Puerto Rico. The resulting commonwealth however has failed completely to solve the status issue of Puerto Rico (Torruella, 1985).

The Commonwealth government of Puerto Rico is republican in its states. Additionally, its executive, judicial and legislative branches are usually established by the constitution. They are subordinate to the Puerto Rico subordinates. The Puerto Rico authority commonwealth will extend to the Puerto Rico Island as well as the islands that are adjacent to it. The government seat is in the San Juan City (To Puerto Rico, 2010).

Business in Puerto Rico
 One thing that has led to obstacles in the development of business as well as employment growth is the permitting process. Evidence reveals that this process is very costly and slow, and therefore characterized by several uncertainties. This is because it has been subjected to poor outcomes, is easily manipulated by politicians and business rivals, susceptible to corruption and some special interest groups. The ineffectiveness and problems in the permitting process have led to an increase in the costs of creating new businesses, which has in turn led to a decline in business establishments, hence low employment growth (Collins, Bosworth  Soto Class, 2006).

The economy is being restored through modernization. The workers are being shifted from the agricultural sector to the larger industrial sector. Even though there have been impossibilities for the local entrepreneurs to form a service economy and a modern industry, the opportunities that are provided by federal tax exemptions have been used to attract US corporations that are located in Puerto Rico(Dietz, 2003).

There is extreme poverty in Puerto Rico. Therefore, people move from the region to the US so as to seek for jobs. A research carried out revealed that female headed families in Puerto -Rico moved to New York in search of employment, while female headed families in new York preferred to remain closer to their homes. This is a clear indication that the Puerto Rican residents have had very difficult conditions in their families (Baker, 2005).

Puerto Rico should become Independent
Puerto Rico was granted its citizenship in 1917, one in which millions of people in Puerto Rico fought for. Even though the United States has been of a great assistance to Puerto Rico, they still wanted to be an independent state. Their war is indeed justified. In Puerto Rico, there are three political parties, whose focus is mainly of the elections rather than the welfare of the Puerto Rican people (Rivera, 2010).  Theses parties include the Popular Democratic Party, the New Progressive Party and the Puerto Rican Independence Party. These parties are really devoted to feed their egos instead of concentrating on situations such as food, education and the health of the people. This has rendered Puerto Rico to continue wallowing in poverty. This political drama has therefore forced the people to prefer being an independent state (Rivera, 2010).

There have been several claims about the Puerto Ricans losing their identity once they become an independent state. However, this is not true, because the Puerto Ricans are very strongly rooted to their traditions. The Puerto Ricans criticize the Puerto Rican independence Party and the Popular Democratic Party (Rivera, 2010). This is because they are professionals, and have sent their children to the best schools in the US. However, these leaders are against the idea of the people of Puerto learning English. The Puerto Ricans want to follow the example of Hawaii, a country which became an independent state, and so then, has become rich in very many aspects. Therefore, there is need for Puerto Rico to be given its independence, so that it can continue to grow in all sectors of the economy, just like other countries like Hawaii (Rivera, 2010).

Culture and Customs of Puerto Rico
Several years ago, the Puerto Rican Island was referred to as Boriquen. This meant The land of the Brave Lord in the Taino language. The Taino people are known to gather together as villages and families so as to talk about magic, heroes and how the world began. This is the manner in which the customs and culture of the Taino has been passed from one generation to another (Banting, 2003).
 The Puerto Ricans have a very diverse culture. In regard to language, the official ones are English and Spanish. However, Puerto Rico has great numbers of Spanish speaking people, despite the efforts of the government to foster bilingualism or eradicate Spanish. The Puerto Rican Spanish is a blend of standard Spanish which has got specific particularities. The Taino influence is seen in the way material objects are described. Place names, natural phenomena and colloquialism of African speech has also made contributions to words and therefore influenced the syntax, prosody and phonology of the people. Language is a major cultural marker of the peoples national identity. The culture of the Puerto Ricans has always been under siege because of colonialism (Every Culture, 2010).

The food preferences of the Puerto Ricans have been shaped by the cultural diversity of the people as well as their predominant lifestyle. African and Taino influences have been seen as far as tropical vegetables and fruits, cereals, legumes, seafood, ubiquitous beans and rice are concerned. The Spanish have contributed in culinary techniques, cattle, pork and wheat products. The traditional Puerto Rican meals were patterned after the customs of the Spanish people. This included a large midday meal, continental breakfast and a modern supper. Several people in this region eat a large dinner and breakfast as well as fast food lunch. There are places which serve beans and rice as fast foods as well as local dishes. The island also has got eating places and restaurants across the capital (Every Culture, 2010).

During ceremonies like the thanksgiving, the people make food which is prepared according to culinary techniques and local tastes. Therefore, the thanksgiving ceremony is usually celebrated with a local seasoning mix referred to as adobo. The traditional holiday menu includes roasted pork, pigeon peas and rice as well as coconut rice pudding. There are also the popular rum and coconut beverages which are present (Every Culture, 2010).  

In relation to religion, the US is known to have brought the protestant religions in Puerto Rico, mainly in the Catholic society. Over thirty percent of the Puerto Ricans are Protestants. There is a synagogue in the San Juan region, but there is no mosque. There is also the existence of religions which are known to have evolved from the Africans, especially from the witchcraft practices. Some of these religions include the Santeria religion, which was brought about by the Cubans, and was a blend of the Catholic and Yoruba religions (Every Culture, 2010).

The Puerto Ricans are known of having cultural tendencies which allows them to own their own houses. Therefore, they are known to have housing developments, strip malls and shopping centers, which have replaced the old market places. The public housing projects have slowly replaced the urban slums in the country. Initially, the Puerto Ricans resisted this move as it was considered a violation of individual community and housing .There were high rise condominiums which were constructed in the 1950s, and became desirable housing choices. In the other rural areas, the houses that were once made up of straw and wood are slowly being replaced by cement block houses (Every Culture, 2010).

The Taino Indians
According to surveys conducted by geneticists from the popular Puerto Rico University, sixty one percent of all the citizens of Puerto Rico have Amerindian DNA twelve percent have Caucasian DNA while twenty seven percent have African DNA. In other words, most of the Puerto Ricans have Taino blood. This reveals that there was assimilation, but the people were not in any way extinguished. The people were mixed, and that is what characterizes the people of Puerto Rico, some of them are Africans, Indians while others are Spaniards. Puerto Rico was made up of this group of people referred to as the Tainos. The Taino American Indian group has gone through several painful moments in the hands of the United States government. In 1898, they were forcefully removed from the Island and were sent back to their American Indian schools. However, they were not wiped out as majority of Puerto Rico has these people in the island (Elyunque, 2010).

There were two groups of the citizens of Puerto Rico who sought to make declaratory judgments which granted them all the rights of voting in elections, based on the idea that they could vote during presidential elections, and that they were US citizens. The first group was made up of citizens who always resided in Puerto Rico. The second one comprised of former state citizens, who had lost their rights of voting during presidential election by moving to Puerto Rico. The court stated that there was no way Puerto Rico could participate in the elections until it either became a state, or was granted its rights through the amendment of the constitution. The two plaintiff groups argued that the island was entitled to its national voting rights because of its political status, which was close to that of the state (Roman, 2010).

After the court deliberations, there were some amendments which were made in regard to Puerto Rico. To start with, it was considered as a commonwealth. Therefore, the Article II of the commonwealth constitution stated that the state should elect the president and vice president (Roman, 2010). It is also very clear that the voting rights are not based on the citizenship and that Puerto Rico would be unable to participate in presidential elections. This was unless if it became a state or was granted the same rights through amendments on the constitution. Therefore, as they seek the rights to vote in the elections through federal court systems, the process seems to be even more futile that it was before (Roman, 2010).

History of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico was granted a royal decree on November 28, 1897. The Autonomy Charter gave Puerto Rico greater autonomy that it had ever received in its history. Puerto Rico elected delegates in both houses of the Spanish courts. It elected a total of thirty five members of the House of Representatives as well as fifteen members in the loyal administration Council. The local legislature was known to set its own taxes and budgets. They also rejected and accepted commercial treaties which were concluded by Spain. After the general elections were conducted in 1898, an autonomous government started to function. However, the Spanish American War emerged in 1898. Afterwards, Puerto Rico was invaded by USA. When the Spanish American war came to an end, a treaty was signed by Paris. This treaty stated that Spain was supposed to cede Puerto Rico, Philippines and Guam to the USA, and Cuba would become a USA protectorate (Solboriuca, 2010).

In 1917, President Woodrow Wilson signed a law referred to as the Jones law. This law was important as it granted the Puerto Ricans their American citizenship. Additionally, the Jones law granted freedoms such as freedom of press, speech liberty, innocence presumption and the right to trials before the incarceration process. Additionally, it created a total of eighteen senators and thirty nine House of Representatives members, who were elected by a popular vote. The governor was still appointed by the USA President. The appointed governor and the USA President or the congress had all the power to veto all laws that were approved by the Puerto Rican Congress. The Puerto Ricans were also eligible to serve in the American Armed forces, and therefore took a very vital role in all the USA military conflicts (Solboriuca, 2010).

Population
The colonial history of Puerto Rico with Spain led to the development of a racially mixed population. Eighty five percent of this population was Roman Catholic. This population was estimated to be over three million in July, and a total growth of ten percent between 1990 and 1999 as revealed by the US Census Bureau. People who were between the ages of fifteen and sixty four constituted of two thirds of the total population. As of 2000, the annual population growth rate was at 0.56 percent. Presently, the population is over four million, an estimate which has been proved right by the 2000 report. The life expectancy average of the population is 75.5 years (Nations Encyclopedia, 2010).

The growth of the Puerto Rican population has been discouraged by the government. The government has been known to be a strong supporter of family planning, birth control measures and programs on the national and the community levels. During the twentieth century, the large scale migration of several Puerto Ricans has slowed the population growth. As a result, overcrowding has been alleviated. Since the 1900s, there has been an increased movement of Puerto Ricans from the mainland going back to the island because of the rise in living conditions (Nations Encyclopedia, 2010).   

The government has also placed stress on education, which has explained the increase in literacy on the island. There is a growth in the measures of bilingual education. This has caused great debate on the island. The Puerto Rican population has shown very high concentration rate in the urban areas and along the coastal lowlands. Several neighboring cities are almost growing together due to urban expansion. For instance, the Puerto Rican capital and the surrounding areas are characterized by a population of over 1.5 million (Nations Encyclopedia, 2010).

Puerto Rican Economy
The poor economy of Puerto Rico has led to the downfall of several business corporations. For instance, there has been a contract fight between the Hilton Hotel and Puerto Rico members of a group refereed to as Unite Here Local 610. The new contract got its ratification in February 2010, a situation which saved the union. This led to a stop in concession bargaining and decline. Therefore, it raised the living standards of the members as well as increasing the power. In past negotiations, the Local 610 members have in most times swallowed losses, and very few economic improvements (NYHT, 2010).

Therefore, this new contract was seen as victorious, and every new contract was a clear representative of an improvement of the members. During times of severe economic hardships, it was considered that the deal, which cost 13.5 million dollars, was better than the agreements which had been negotiated by other unions in the past. Additionally, the basic contact provisions which related to the union members rights and power balance between the management and the union have been rewritten. Therefore, the contracts non- economic elements are superior in other union contracts in the North America Hotel Industry (NYHT, 2010).

At the onset of the 1950s there was a commonwealth developmental program which was referred to as Operation Bootstrap. This fostered rapid industrialization. Cheap skilled labor and tax incentives brought several investors from the US to the Island. However, in the 1960s, the end of tax incentives and the social costs led to the erosion of the economy. There was the increased flight of industries to cheaper labor markets in Latin America and Asia and the increase in international businesses. This led to the reduction in the industrialization process (Every Culture, 2010).  

In the major industries, there has been a very slow growth due to the restrictive US policies and laws in the US-dominated finance and banking industry. This has rendered Puerto Rico dependent on services and manufacturing as it cannot conduct international business or develop its own markets. The government remains the major employer, where it has fostered high technology industries and petrochemical ones which are known to capitalize on the educated labor force. Chemicals, medical equipment, electronics and pharmaceuticals were known to be the leading products, and tourism was seen as the most important service industry (Every Culture, 2010).   

The disadvantages that Puerto Rico has been facing have made situations difficult for it to participate in trade for instance, importing goods such as machinery, chemicals, transport equipment, food, petroleum products and petroleum, textiles, clothing, scientific and professional instruments. The major exports include chemical products, machinery and food (Every Culture, 2010).  

Social development
Employment rates among the residents of Puerto Rico are very low, and it has been so for several decades. Census data for 2000, 1980 and 1990 reveals that among the people aged between sixteen to fifty five years, only fifty percent were employed. Compared to the US, there was an average sixty five to seventy percent employment rate during the same years in the same age bracket. Puerto Rico is the only Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OCED) member with an employment rate below fifty four percent (Collins, Bosworth  Soto Class, 2006).

Independence is also very beneficial to Puerto Rico as it will encourage the economic production and job expansion in all regions. This will help the country to be less dependent as far as economy is concerned. The isolation and idle workforce problem will also be dealt with. Therefore, the social problems will be less, and the self esteem as well as the national pride of the Puerto Ricans will be strengthened. With independence, Puerto Rico will be able to develop the national environmental policies, which will be created so as to respond to needs and particular conditions. This will be in a bid to protect the national patrimony and improve life quality, as well as limit great costs which happen as a result of environmental damage (Matanzo, 2010).

Economic prosperity can happen in Puerto Rico
Whether a country has a small population density, territorial extension and size does not in any way determine whether a country will manage to attain proper economic development. About a fourth of the world is made up of the so called small countries. In fact, some of them are wallowing in extreme poverty more than Puerto Rico, for instance, Brunei, Luxemburg and Singapore. The size of a country does not really matter. What matters is whether the country has the ability to utilize its natural assets in a creative manner, be it the human, natural, cultural and political resources, and maximize all its potentials. Additionally, if a nation has to be economically empowered, it has to have the ability of using its sovereign powers so as to exploit all its resources and agree to engage in treaties with other countries so as to stimulate its economy (Matanzo, 2010).

It has happened to other countries smaller than Puerto Rico in terms of its population, and even extremely poorer than Puerto Rico. These countries are known to have a greater income per capita that Puerto Rico. These countries include Cyprus, Bahamas, Singapore and Malta. After all, it is not impossible for Puerto to increase economically because these countries are even smaller than Puerto Rico (Matanzo, 2010).

When Puerto Rico attains its independence, is will be able to create economic incentives for its industry, agriculture and commerce centers. This will ensure that there is a reduction in the trade deficits and an increase in productivity. Additionally, Puerto will have the ability to regulate all the migrations of people, either inside or outside the island. This is because the US coastal shipping laws make things difficult for Puerto Rico to have its own laws. Puerto also demands for the power so as to sign international treaties (Matanzo, 2010).  

This will be necessary as it will enable the country to attract investments from Japan, the European Union members as well as the US. After Puerto Rico has been given the power to sign the treaties, the fiscal reciprocity and tax exemptions will not in any way be achieved as long as the present colonial relationship with the US remains. Instead, the only way it will achieve all this is through becoming a state. Puerto Ricans also advocate for the power to expand export markets and purchase from markets which are less expensive (Matanzo, 2010).

Therefore, it is only through independence of Puerto Rico that will render it fit to participate in the new global economy, as well as becoming a fully- fledged voting member. It will therefore gain the ability to join international and regional organizations (Matanzo, 2010).

Birth certificate scandals
A recent case where the Puerto Ricans have been denied their independent rights is on the issuing of new certificates. Native Puerto Ricans who live outside the island were required to get new certificates by the end of July, 2010. The meaning of this law, which was enacted in 2009, was to combat identity theft. This meant that all the people living in the US states had to arrange so as to acquire new certificates. All the people who were born in Puerto Rico were regarded as US citizens. Therefore, all people who stole birth certificate that belonged to the citizens of Puerto Rico could gain access to the US on easier terms. This was seen as a great threat to the security of the US (Gamboa, 2010).

The reason why the law was passed was because of an incident which occurred in March, 2009, where criminal gangs had stolen several birth certificates. These birth certificates were stolen in several Puerto Rican schools. According to the Secretary of State in Puerto Rico, each citizen usually got around twenty birth certificate copies in their lifetime. This is because they were required to produce them in events such as sports leagues or enrolling children in schools. Institutions and other schools have kept copies, a practice which has been curbed since January. This situation has created increased black market activities as far as birth certificates are concerned. In fact, the value of the certificates in the black market has also increased from five thousand to ten thousand US dollars (Gamboa, 2010).

Puerto Rican Voting rights
Since the 1970s, there has been a cry in the federal courts for all the Puerto Rican citizens living in the fifty states so that they could be given the right to vote during presidential elections. For instance, in United State versus Sanchez, a citizen of Puerto Rico challenged the statutes constitution allowing the people of the Island to consent to commonwealth status (Roman, 2002). This is because it has been denied its right to vote. However, the district court dismissed the action, stating that all citizens could not acquire the rights to vote in the presidential elections because the constitution does not, by its terms, grant citizens the right to vote, but leaves the matter entirely to the states. To support its decision, the court went ahead and cited several amendments in the constitution which were related to the rights of the voters. It was clearly noted that the constitution had been amended so as to grant all former slaves, Columbian district residents, women and all citizens that were in the age bracket of eighteen to twenty years old the right to vote (Roman, 2002).

Women in Puerto Rico
There was a new feminism in the US which was referred to as the Womens Lib in the 1970s. It spread because of the influence in the mass media. During this time, there were several investigations which were next to research on educational sex discrimination and domestic violence, as well as dealing with sexual harassment. There was a conference which was held in Puerto Rico at the same time so as to respond to the Mexico City conference of women in 1975. This was a beginning of a new era of feminism. Therefore, the onset of the new feminism in the Latin America atmosphere forced the Puerto Rican government to respond to the issues that affected women. It is at this time that the women studies emerged. In 1980s, the department or centers for women studies were being established at several universities. As a result, sex discrimination studies were promoted (Iwate, 2010).

Therefore, the social position of the Puerto Rican women has continued to change with time. It has improved social -economically and historically. However, there are problems which are yet to be resolved. One of these problems regards to the economic difficulties that the female headed households go through and the domination of men in the political field. Additionally, it is almost impossible for a large number of women to join the high income bracket, even if they are more educated than men. Besides, the number of women affected by the HIVAIDS and the homicide scourge is large. The majority of the Puerto Rican women are also affected by violence, AIDS and poverty (Iwate, 2010).

Latin America has come a long way as far its countries are concerned. This has clearly been revealed by Puerto Rico, which has been going through difficulties in its administration, mainly because of the denial of independence. It is important for Puerto Rico to gain it independence, so that it can succeed in all its economic sectors. The US should therefore grant Puerto Rico its full rights of becoming independent, so that it can grow, just like the other small countries have done.